Atlas of Our Changing Environment

Lake Kyoga

2009-10-07T15:22:00.003-05:00

Uganda


Lake Kyoga is a shallow lake with a surface area of 4000 km2. Half a million people live on its shores as well as on some on the large masses of vegetation called sudds seen floating in the lake (see especially the 1986 image). These communities rely heavily on the lake for their livelihoods. However, in the early 2000s life on the Lake was disrupted following a rapid change in the water level as a result of El Nino rains in 1997 and 1998. The high water caused some of the sudds, along with dislodged papyrus beds and water hyacinth mats to block the lakes outlet. The satellite images from 1974, 1986 and 2002 show the floating sudds on the lake. By 2002 many of these sudds had moved west blocking the outlet to the Nile River, leading to flooding in places surrounding the lake. The floods displaced people, destroyed infrastructure and disrupted livelihoods. Two channels were opened by Uganda’s Directorate of Water Development (DWD) in 2001-2002 and later on a team from Egypt had to dredge to allow water flow downstream. View detailed information

Nairobi

2009-10-07T15:16:00.007-05:00

Kenya




Following its founding in 1902 it took roughly 40 years for Nairobi to exceed a population of 100 000 people. By independence, 20 years later it had reached around 350 000 people. Rapidly increasing population has been ongoing ever since, surpassing one million in the 1980s, two million in the 1990s and now approaching three million residents. While the annual rate of growth has at times exceeded 10 per cent it has more recently decreased to below four per cent per year — still very high by global standards. Nairobi is projected to top 3.8 million by 2015. The dramatic growth in area of intense urban settlement can be seen between the 1966 image and the 2007-2008 image mosaic. Much of Nairobi’s urban footprint is unplanned settlement driven by rapid population growth and urban poverty among other things. Sprawling informal settlements handicap the city’s delivery of social services and negatively impact the quality of life. View detailed information

Mount Elgon

2009-10-07T15:13:00.003-05:00

Uganda


Mount Elgon, on Uganda’s eastern border, is a long extinct volcano supporting a variety of habitats, including dense tropical hardwood and bamboo forests, as well as an assortment of grassland and riverine ecosystems. Roughly 2000 square kilometers on the Ugandan side of the mountain are managed as protected areas; the largest of these being Mount Elgon National Park – established in 1992. Some of the densest population in the country makes its home along the park’s borders on the steep foot-slopes of the mountain. Most of these communities rely on pastoralism and subsistence agriculture; and with a growing population there is a strong demand for farmland and grazing land. The Ugandan Government and several non-governmental agencies along with the local communities, strive to balance the livelihoods of the local people with the need to protect the important natural areas of Mt Elgon – upon which those livelihoods ultimately rely. The resettlement of local people in 1983, in an area previously managed as forest can be seen clearly seen in these images from 1973 and 2005. This resettlement proved to be quite problematic for local people and the government. Since the mid 1980s, management of this area has taken a community based resource management approach, with improved participation and empowerment of the local comminutes. Nevertheless, continued growth of the area’s population makes striking a balance between protecting the mountain’s natural resources and meeting the needs of the local communities ever more challenging. View detailed information

Mau Forest Complex

2009-10-07T15:11:00.004-05:00

Kenya


In spite of its national importance, many areas of the Mau Forest Complex have been deforested or degraded, with much of the damage occurring since the 1980s. Degazettement of forest reserves and continuous widespread encroachment have led to the destruction of over 100 000 ha of forest since the late 2000s, representing roughly one-quarter of the Mau Complex’s area. This series of satellite images documents 35 years of incremental destruction of forest area, punctuated by dramatic excisions. The Mau Forest Complex contains the catchment areas for many of Kenya’s most important rivers. The loss of forest can impact the quality and volume of water for these important rivers. Extreme land-cover changes such as these can have serious consequences both within the forest and downstream in the form of water shortages, health risks, desertification, habitat destruction, sedimentation, erosion, and even alteration of the micro-climate. This rate of forest loss is unsustainable and threatens the security and future development of Kenya. View detailed information

Loita Plains

2009-10-07T15:07:00.002-05:00

Kenya


The Loita Plains, northeast of world famous Masai Mara National Reserve, are an important part of the larger Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem. They are core breeding and calving grounds and wet-season grazing land for the wildebeest, whose annual migration is the primary tourism feature of the Masai Mara Reserve. The natural landscape here is tall grass savanna with some scattered acacia and dwarf shrubs. The primary human inhabitants of the Loita Plains are the Maasai, who have traditionally been nomadic pastoralists. Responding to the limited, unpredictable and seasonal rains on these grasslands the Masai like the wildebeest, traditionally migrated through the year to where the grasses provided adequate food for their cattle. Over the past several decades, changes in land use in the Narok District have caused changes in ways of life for both the Masai and the Wildebeest. While most Masai in both Tanzania and in Kenya have taken up cultivation in recent decades, land tenure restrictions in Tanzania have tended to prevent widespread development of mechanized cultivation. In Kenya however, large mechanized wheat farms in the area surrounding Masai Mari expanded roughly 1 000 per cent between 1975 and 1995, most of them on the Loita Plains. This has reduced the available natural grasslands in this important wildebeest habitat. The Masai Mara is perhaps the most famous of Kenya’s tourist attractions and the annual migration of the wildebeest and other large mammals is one of the Mara’s most compelling features. Management of competing land uses for this vast grassland will require a careful balance if its value is to be preserved for future generations. View detailed information

Lake Wamala

2009-10-07T15:02:00.004-05:00

Uganda



Seventy kilometers to the west of Kampala is Lake Wamala. After being stocked in 1956 the lake was a productive fishery in the 1960s and early 1970s, providing a major source of fresh fish for the city of Kampala as well the local residents surrounding the lake. However, the lake was seriously overfished and the fishery had largely collapsed by the mid 1970s. The shallow lake’s levels have fluctuated with changes in precipitation through the recent decades. In the 1980s its surface covered roughly 250 sq km. During the 1990s its surface shrank to roughly half that size. It has more recently recovered much of its surface area, however Lake Wamala’s future management remains a concern for those who live in its vicinity. View detailed information

Lake Naivasha

2009-10-07T14:56:00.003-05:00

Kenya


Unlike other lakes in Kenya’s Eastern Rift Valley, Lake Naivasha is a freshwater lake, receiving most of its inflow from the Aberdare Mountains to its east. It is a valuable freshwater resource for human uses and for a diverse population of water birds and large mammals, including hippopotamuses. The lake supports a range of economic activities including commercial flower growing, fishing, and a geothermal power plant. In recent years, pressure on the Lake has increased as population and human activities have intensified throughout its catchment. Several of these changes can be seen in the differences between the 1973 and 2008 satellite images. The footprints of Naivasha town and Karagita have grown considerably to well above 600 000, reflecting the increased population throughout the catchment. Many commercial greenhouse flower farms have been built since the early 1980s. These are visible surrounding the lake as bright white and light blue squares of greenhouse roofs. Designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance, efforts are being made to sustainably manage the lake. Nevertheless, water abstraction for agriculture; watershed deforestation; diversion of inflow from Malewa and Gilgil Rivers; nutrient, sediment, and chemical runoff into the lake; and invasive species are just some of the many concerns bearing on Naivasha’s future. View detailed information

Kampala

2009-10-07T14:46:00.003-05:00

Uganda


Due primarily to high rural to urban migration, Kampala’s population has grown at an average rate of 5.6 percent annually since the 1960s; expanding its urban footprint to a sprawling 197 square kilometers. Over 1.2 million people now live in the capital city. This stunning growth can be seen in the remarkable contrast between these 1974 and 2008 satellite images. The growing population has led unplanned settlement and inadequate infrastructure for many of the City’s residents. In addition, areas of forest in and around the capital have been lost to increasing demand for charcoal. Many of the wetlands in the Kampala area have been lost to industrial and residential development. This has had a negative impact on water quality within Kampala as well as the water of Murchison Bay which has experienced periodic infestations of water hyacinth and massive algae blooms which turn the water of the bay green. View Detailed information

Dadaab Refugee Camp

2009-10-07T14:39:00.003-05:00

Kenya


Ifo, Dagahaley, and Hagadera refugee camps are located in Dadaab town in the North Eastern Province of Kenya, near the border with Somalia. The camps date back to 1991 when civil wars erupted on a large scale in Somalia. The conflicts, along with prolonged drought, forced more than 400 000 people from Somalia to flee to Kenya and another 500 000 to other neighboring countries. The 1987 image shows a fairly intact landscape dominated by shrub vegetation characteristic of the semiarid area. In the 2000 image, the Ifo, Dagahaley, and Hagadera refugee camps stand out distinctly, revealing the presence of over 100 000 refugees and the impact of a high concentration of people on the environment. Shrublands have been reduced largely to bare spots with sparse and stunted shrubs and grasses, while riverine vegetation has also suff ered loss and degradation. View Detailed information

Budongo Forest Reserve

2009-10-07T14:33:00.004-05:00

Uganda


A study in the Budongo Forest/Murchison Falls National Park landscape shows that there has been both woody cover decrease and increase. In areas where there has been continuous burning, woody cover species have changed from those that are less resistant to fire to those that are more resistant. The burning was mainly carried out by the local communities bordering the forest. In the northern portion of Budongo, an increase in policing of the forest area and the presence of a park entry gate has resulted in an observable decrease in burning. Signs of fire are evident in such landscapes as dark reddish purple scars. Fire scars were evident on the 1973 image of northern Budongo. There are almost no fire scars on the 2008 image. The areas where there has been a higher control of burning are the areas which have seen an increase in woody cover. View detailed information

Okavango Delta and Lake Ngami

2008-08-27T07:55:00.002-05:00

Botswana


The vast stretches of grassland, wetland, and open water of the Okavango Delta are home to a variety of wildlife and vegetation as well as several native tribes. Although the Okavango ecosystem is considered one of the wonders of the world and attracts tourists from all over the globe, it faces several significant threats. Proposed upstream water projects are among these threats. The Okavango River originates in the highlands of east-central Angola and brings the flood waters and sediment necessary to maintain the dynamic flooding of the delta. Upstream dams could trap much of this sediment, causing the river View detailed information

Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier

2008-08-18T12:57:00.009-05:00


Kangerdlugssuaq, the largest outlet glacier on Greenland’s east coast, is one of 12 fast flowing outlet glaciers that discharge ice into the surrounding oceans. Its rate of flow more than doubled between 2000 and 2005 reaching a speed of 14 km per year or 1.6 meters per hour. It has since slowed. During this same period mean summer temperature at coastal weather stations along southeastern Greenland increased 1.1° C. While the mechanisms controlling the rate of flow are complex and not fully understood, there is a general consensus that warming temperatures are driving the increased rates of discharge. The fronts of glaciers throughout southeast Greenland also receded rapidly during this same time period; an average retreat of 24 m/yr increasing to an average of 175 m/yr. Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier, which had been retreating 25 to 100 meters per year in the period between 1992 and 2000, retreated more than 4 km between April 2004 and April 2005. The loss of the Greenland Ice sheet is a major factor in projecting the sea level rise which might result from global warming. Loss of the entire sheet would raise global sea level an estimated 7 meters. If melting were the only mechanism through which Greenland was losing ice mass, this could take 1000s of years. The acceleration of Greenland’s glaciers raises concerns that the global sea level may rise more rapidly under global warming scenarios than had previously been estimated. View detailed information

Mendenhall Glacier

2008-08-18T12:57:00.007-05:00


Mendenhall Glacier flows 22 kilometers from an elevation of nearly 1,600 meters in the Coast Mountain Range, to just above sea level at its terminus roughly 5 kilometers northeast of Juneau, Alaska. It has been receding since the 1700s when the “Little Ice Age” ended, retreating approximately 3 kilometers in the past century. Most of this retreat occurred in the mid-1940s and the late 1990s. The majority of the global community now accepts fluctuations in glaciers, particularly changes in their volume, to be reliable indications of a global trend of warmer air temperatures. While the retreating tongues of glaciers are less directly linked to climate change than overall volume, they are much more readily observed and allow the study of glaciers which would otherwise be out of the reach of most research projects. It is believed that the current climate conditions will not be reflected in most glacier tongues for years and will eventually amount to a kilometer or more of additional retreat. If climate conditions continue to follow current trends many glaciers will disappear completely. The satellite images from 1986 and 2007 show the continuing retreat of Mendenhall Glacier. Similar changes are taking place in many of the glaciers in southeastern Alaska. A 2002 study estimated the contribution of melting Alaska glaciers to sea level rise between the 1950s and 1990s to be twice that of the melting of Greenland’s ice sheet during the same time period. View detailed information

Great Man-made River Project, Al Kufra

2008-06-12T02:35:00.000-05:00

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya


In the 1950s, oil exploration in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya turned up another resource beneath the scorching sands: the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System. Radiocarbon analysis showed that some of the water in the aquifer system was 40 000 years old. Tapping the aquifers was chosen as the most cost-effective option for meeting the country's water needs. In 1993, Phase I of the Great Man-made River (GMMR) Project brought water from eastern well-fields at Sarir and Tazerbo to Benghazi (not shown). In 1996, Phase II brought water from well-fields at Jebel Hassouna to Tripoli (not shown). Phase III is still under construction. The project's largest reservoir, known as the Grand Omar Mukhtar, is located at Suluq (2006 image, yellow arrows). When fully operational, the GMMR will pump 3.6 million cubic metres of the Nubian Aquifer water per day. Water from the aquifer is used to support extensive centre-pivot irrigation agriculture at Al Kufra (see 1972 and 2001 images above). At current extraction rates the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System is not likely to be depleted for a thousand years. Nevertheless, it is shared among four African nations: Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Chad, Sudan, and Egypt. The concern of environmentalists is that eventually people will drain the aquifer faster than nature can renew it. The International Atomic Energy Agency is trying to bring the four countries together to plan rational shared use of the water. View detailed information

São Tomé

2008-06-12T02:30:00.011-05:00

Sao Tome and Principe


São Tomé is the capital city of the island that shares its name. Located in the island's Agua Grande district, the population of São Tomé increased from a mere 8 431 in 1940 to 51 886 in 2001. The satellite image shows how settlements, especially along roads, have expanded inland from the city. While much of the island still retained its natural vegetation in 2007, vegetation loss is obvious near the capital city and surrounding settlements, where forests have been converted to croplands. Substantial oil reserves have recently been discovered off the island of São Tomé, which will most likely fuel increased development. View detailed information

Anjouan Island

2008-06-12T02:30:00.009-05:00

Comoros


Comoros’ population quadrupled between 1950 and 2000. On Anjouan Island, where population density is 446 people per square kilometre, agricultural land is in short supply and many areas of steep terrain not suitable for agriculture have nevertheless been cultivated. Traditional agriculture leaves many trees in the fields, which help control soil erosion. However, pressure for food production is leading to more open field agriculture and some monoculture farming on the island of Anjouan. These more intense methods of agriculture encourage soil erosion. The top image above shows Anjouan’s fragmented forest. The reddish yellow areas on the simulated 3-D images show agricultural lands on Anjouan’s slopes. As a whole, Comoros lost about 60 per cent of its forest cover between 1950 and 1985. View detailed information

Coral Reefs of Mauritius

2008-06-12T02:30:00.005-05:00

Mauritius


Over the past 50 years, the population of Mauritius has nearly doubled, to 1.2 million. It currently has the highest population density of any African country, 652 people per km². Mauritius has also seen a dramatic growth in its economy, which has increased demands on its environment. Coral reefs almost surround Mauritius. Coral reefs are complex ecosystems, rich in biodiversity yet only able to survive in very clear, warm and nutrient-poor ocean waters. In these satellite images, coral reefs (yellow arrows) form a fringe along the island's shores and create shallow lagoons that are extremely important to the fishing and tourist industries. The island's population density as well as agricultural runoff, untreated sewage, changes in freshwater runoff, tourist activity, and global warming all threaten the health of the reefs. View detail information

Balanta Rice Farming

2008-06-12T02:30:00.003-05:00

Guinea-Bissau


Rice is a major crop and staple food in Guinea-Bissau. The production of paddy, or "wetland," rice started in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, when the Balanta (the country's largest ethnic group) started organising men and women for agricultural production. Rice paddies have replaced many of the mangroves along the Gêba and Mansôa Rivers to the north of the capital, Bissau (2007 image). These rice paddies are built by cutting a path through the mangroves and piling up mud to form a dike that will keep back the tide. The mangroves, cut off from the ocean, quickly die. The ground is then burned to clear remaining undergrowth. After the paddies are constructed, their walls trap rain water, in which rice will grow. The 2007 image (above right) shows several dark green belts of mangrove forests adjacent to the Gêba and Mansôa Rivers. Intensive rice farming is indicated by the light-grey areas bordering these mangroves. This pattern is observed around Bissau, as well as the smaller towns of Cufar, Mansôa, Bissassema de Cima, and Nã Balanta. The 2005 high-resolution image (above left) shows the intensity of rice cultivation in an area near Cufar (from yellow box, above right). Inundated rice paddies (whitish rectangles) and rice fields (light- to dark-green rectangles) surround the meandering river. Only isolated patches of mangroves (deep-green) remain along much of the river. View detailed information

Swaziland Sugar Plantations

2008-06-12T02:27:00.052-05:00

Swaziland


Sugar cane production has become Swaziland's biggest industry as large-scale producers have been joined by hundreds of small-scale farmers. Much of this growth can be attributed to government promotion of sugar cane farming. While this growth has come at the expense of natural flora and fauna, it has brought significant benefits for the eastern province of Lubombo. Sugar cane plantations are found primarily in northeastern Swaziland where temperatures are optimal. However, this region is also characterized by erratic rainfall with periods of drought; precipitation provides only 25 per cent of the water sugar cane crops need. To meet the sugar cane industry's remaining water requirements, several dams have been constructed along major rivers, including the Sand River and Mnjoli Dams. These satellite images, from 1979 and 2006, show the dams and how the area devoted to sugar cane plantations has increased over time. Sugar cane exports bring in roughly US$1 500 million annually to Swaziland. Lubombo Province, in particular, relies heavily on income from sugar cane as well as social services that the industry provides, including medical care, education, housing, and access to clean water. Yet fluctuating sugar prices have prompted the Swazi government to promote the production of other crops. Such a transition, however, is far easier for small-scale farmers than for large-scale producers with extensive plantations. View detailed information

Souss-Massa Valley

2008-06-12T02:27:00.051-05:00

Morocco


The Souss-Massa Valley is located in southwestern Morocco. Rainfall in the valley is only about 200 mm per year, which is not enough to support most types of agriculture. In 1968, Morocco's King initiated a plan to irrigate one million hectares. In 1972, the Youssef Ben Tachfine Dam (photo below) was built on the Massa River, creating a reservoir that supported a substantial growth in agriculture in the valley and allowed development of a modern agricultural area of 18 000 hectares, primarily dedicated to vegetable and citrus cultivation. Irrigated agriculture in the valley also uses groundwater; however, groundwater withdrawal has exceeded the natural rate of recharge. Since the 1970s groundwater resources have declined, forcing farmers to drill much deeper wells to reach water. In the 1970s, greenhouse agriculture was introduced to the area. It requires 80 per cent less water per kg of crop than unprotected agriculture. The 1988 satellite image shows a few greenhouses (light blue squares) scattered throughout the valley. The 2003 image shows the expansion that has occurred in greenhouse agriculture, with greenhouses (white squares) covering a substantial portion of the valley's agricultural land. The Souss-Massa Valley is Morocco's leading region for greenhouse agriculture, covering 14 530 hectares in 2004. Vegetables are the primary crops, with tomatoes covering more than half the greenhouse area. View detailed information

Jebel Marra Foothills

2008-06-12T02:27:00.050-05:00

Sudan


The Jebel Marra Massif is a region of high, jagged peaks and fertile valleys in western Sudan. The southern foothills of the Jebel Marra receive an average of 600 to 800 mm of precipitation annually, just above the minimum needed to support rain-fed agriculture. Crops include sorghum, millet, groundnuts, and cowpeas that are raised along watercourses and adjacent areas. Pastoralists seasonally graze their cattle on the natural vegetation in the region; the number of grazing herds has increased in recent decades as droughts have made water and pasture scarce further north. Population growth , especially in the latter half of the 20th century, coupled with an influx of refugees from drought and conflict in Northern Darfur have put increasing pressure on this fragile ecosystem. Human activities have greatly altered the natural open-savannah woodlands. The 1972 image shows substantial tree cover across much of the lower left half of the image. The 2006 image shows the degree to which vegetation has been reduced, particularly in the less hilly areas and away from croplands concentrated along the watercourses. The loss of trees and shrubs in this fragile environment is leading to land degradation and reduced capacity to support the area's ever-increasing population. View detailed information

Amatole Mistbelt Forests

2008-06-12T02:27:00.049-05:00

South Africa


While forests are not believed to have ever covered a large part of South Africa, logging, clearing for agriculture, and forest plantations have much reduced their original extent. Indigenous forests now cover only 0.33 per cent of South Africa's land area. South Africa's Amatole Mistbelt Forests are part of the southernmost areas of Afromontane forest in Africa. They contain some small remaining patches of indigenous forest. These forests fall within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot and are home to variety of unique plant and animal species, including several endemic species such as the endangered giant golden mole (Chrysospalax trevelyani). They are also important resources for local people who rely on them for wood and non-wood products. Some of the characteristic tree species are yellowwood (Podocarpus falcatus), (see photo), red currant (Rhus chirindensis), and black ironwood (Olea capensis). South Africa's Department of Water Affairs and Forestry defined the areas of Isidenge and Pirie as "irreplaceable" patches of indigenous forest. While nearly half of the forests in the Amatole Mistbelt Forests are under state management, less than 1.5 per cent are under strict protection. Comparison of these 1972 and 2001 images shows some new areas of tree cover, (yellow arrows); however, these are primarily plantation forests of pine and eucalyptus, which threaten to alter the hydrology and reduce the biodiversity of these ecosystems. View detailed information

Pico de Fogo

2008-06-12T02:27:00.045-05:00

Cape Verde


On 2 April 1995, residents on Fogo Island reported a red glow atop Pico de Fogo volcano. It was the beginning of volcanic eruptions that would continue for seven-and-a-half weeks, sending lava across the floor of Chas das Calderiras (Plain of Craters) that eventually covered 4.3 km2 of farmland, destroyed the village of Boca de Fonte, and forced the evacuation of approximately 1 300 residents. Despite the danger, people live in the caldera and raise coffee, wine grapes, fruits, and other crops in the fertile volcanic soils (red arrows). The 1995 eruption on the southwest slope sent lava flowing to the northwest across the main road through the caldera (yellow arrows). Studies are ongoing as to the stability of Pico de Fogo. View detailed information

Kafue Wetlands

2008-06-12T02:27:00.043-05:00

Zambia


In southern Zambia, the Kafue River crosses a broad floodplain roughly 255 km long. Before the Itezhi-tezhi Dam was built on the river in 1978, flooding beginning in December would cover much of the plain well into the dry season. Although the dam was built to allow the release of sufficient water to cause seasonal flooding, this mimicking of the natural floods has in general not been practised. The Kafue Flats floodplain provides important habitat for rare and endemic species, including the Kafue lechwe (antelope) and wattled crane, and supports local livelihoods, especially cattle-raising and fishing. Limited seasonal flooding following the construction of the dam has been linked to a decline in fish production and in the Kafue lechwe population. The number of lechwe fell from around 90 000 before the dam was built to around 37 000 in 1998. In 2004, a partnership between World Wildlife Fund, the Zambian Ministry of Energy and Water Development, and the Zambian Electricity Supply Company put new rules in place for water releases from the dam to mimic natural flooding patterns more successfully. The 1970s image shows Kafue Flats in the dry season, with water levels retreating. The Kafue Gorge Dam can be seen in the lower right corner of the image (yellow arrow). Itezhi-tezhi Dam was built a few years later to provide more storage capacity for electricity generation at the Kafue Gorge Dam. The 2007 image shows the Kafue Flats during wet season floods, helped for the first time by the release of adequate water from the Itezhi-tezhi Dam. View detailed information

Bou Craa

2008-06-12T02:27:00.041-05:00

Western Sahara


The Bou Craa phosphate mine is located 100 km inland from the capital city of El Aaiun. The Bou Craa area's phosphate resources were discovered by the Spanish in 1947; phosphate deposits are near the surface and are very pure. Phosphate mining, however, did not begin until the 1960s. Since 1974, the Bou Craa mining operation has been growing steadily. In 2000, the mine covered more than 1 225 hectares. In 2001, its output was approximately 1.5 million metric tonnes of phosphate. Morocco controls the area of Western Sahara where the mine is located and jointly operates the mine with Spanish interests. While the mine amounts to only two or three per cent of Morocco's phosphate production, the reserves are valuable because of the uranium that can be extracted from them. The phosphate-containing rock is transported from the Bou Craa mine to the port at El Aaiun via a 100-km-long conveyor belt, which can move 2 000 metric tonnes of rock per hour. The conveyor belt is visible as a straight line from the upper left corner toward the centre of the 1987 and 2007 images above. Below these images are two long, horizontal images, captured in 1972/1973 and 2000. The conveyor belt is visible in the 2000 image running from the mine to the coast. Note the fringe of drifting sand spreading downward from the belt's path (yellow arrows). View detailed information

Sidi Toui National Park

2008-06-12T02:27:00.039-05:00

Tunisia


The semi-arid Sahelian grassland and scrub of southern Tunisia has been profoundly altered by human activities during the last century. Located on the northern fringe of the Sahara Desert, this ecosystem is susceptible to erosion and desertification brought on by droughts, overgrazing, and agriculture. In 1993, Sidi Toui National Park was established. Within the bounds of this protected area, natural vegetation began to return. The 1987 image shows the barren condition of the region before the park was created. In the 2006, image the outline of the park, which is protected from the effects of grazing cattle, contrasts markedly with the surrounding landscape. Protection substantially increased the vegetation density and species diversity, particularly of the grasses. The Scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah) and five other species of gazelles and antelope native to this area had been brought to near extinction by lack of habitat and overhunting throughout the 20th century. Classified as critically endangered in 1996, a small population of Scimitar-horned oryx was introduced into Sidi Toui Park in 1999. If the population inside the park thrives, it may enable future reintroductions of Scimitar-horned oryx elsewhere, Sidi Toui also provides habitat for several native species of antelope, as well as a variety of bird species. View detail information

Nangbeto Reservoir

2008-06-12T02:27:00.037-05:00

Togo


A feasibility study in the 1960s identified the Nangbéto region as the best location for hydroelectric power development in Togo. The site - 160 km upstream from the coast – is the only place where a dam of sufficient volume to regulate the flow of the Mono River was possible. As demand for electricity grew, the decision was made in the 1980s to proceed with the Nangbéto Hydroelectric Dam. Satellite images from 1986 and 2001 show the region before and after the dam's construction. The completed dam created a reservoir with a surface area of approximately 180 km² and a volume of 1 465 million m3. In addition to generating electricity for domestic and commercial use, the dam also provides water for agricultural irrigation and is a source of commercial fishing and tourism. However, these benefits have been offset by environmental costs. Construction of the dam, creation of the reservoir, and installation of transmission lines resulted in the loss of nearly 150 km2 of savannahs and gallery forests that provided habitat for rare local fauna. The reservoir submerged 1 285 households and 5 500 hectares of agricultural land. Loss of the natural vegetation in the region has altered the climate enough to have had a negative impact on nearly 350 hectares of banana plantations. The creation of the reservoir has also increased the population of two species of aquatic snails that serve as intermediate hosts of the parasite that causes the disease bilharzia. View detailed information

Fynbos

2008-06-12T02:27:00.031-05:00

South Africa


The Cape Floristic Region is a Mediterranean-type ecosystem unique to the southwest tip of Africa. It has the greatest concentration of plant species in the world outside of tropical ecosystems, with 6 210 of its 9 000 species occurring nowhere else in the world. Although the region is relatively small, its plant biodiversity is the richest per unit area on Earth, prompting its designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The characteristic and most widespread type of vegetation in the Cape Floristic Region is fynbos, an Afrikaans word that translates as "fine bush." Covering some 46 000 square kilometres, fynbos is a shrubland comprising hard-leafed, evergreen, fire-adapted shrubs. Fynbos covers half of the surface area and accounts for 80 per cent of the plant varieties of the Cape Floristic Region. The 1978 image shows large, relatively intact areas of native fynbos vegetation. Over subsequent decades, however, large tracts of fynbos have been cleared for agriculture or lost to urban expansion around Cape Town. The 2007 image shows how roads, urban development, and agriculture have overtaken much of the area. Fynbos areas are also threatened by invasive alien species, particularly wattle and acacia species from Australia, as well as pine plantations. Many fynbos species have gone extinct, and more than 1 000 are endangered. Their conservation is a priority, and reserves have been established in many areas. View detailed information

Juba River Flooding

2008-06-12T02:27:00.027-05:00

Somalia


Late in the fall of 2006, the Horn of Africa received heavy rains generally believed to have been the consequence of an El Niño weather pattern over the Pacific Ocean. By late November and early December, flooding had displaced roughly half a million people, destroyed crops and villages, and caused outbreaks of disease. The severity of the floods made relief efforts extremely difficult. By December these floods were the worst Somalia had seen in ten years. In March 2007, predictions of above-normal spring rains in the upper reaches of the Juba River watershed threatened to cause more flooding. On the left page, September 2006 and December 2006 images show a portion of the Juba River before and after the rains came, respectively. Flooded areas appear as dark-green to black. Small portions of these images (yellow rectangles) are shown on the right in greater detail. In spite of profound negative impacts of the flooding in the Juba River region, two consecutive seasons of heavy precipitation may have benefited cereal grain production and improved pastoral conditions in the region, substantially reducing the need for humanitarian assistance. View detailed information

Rutile Mining in Moyamba District

2008-06-12T02:27:00.025-05:00

Sierra Leone


Sierra Leone is mineral rich; titanium minerals such as rutile and ilmenite are its principle mineral exports. Before war erupted in 1991, mining represented 90 per cent of Sierra Leone's registered exports and roughly 20 per cent of its GDP—rutile accounted for well over half of that. The Moyamba District, which borders the Atlantic Ocean in the west and Bonthe to the south, is the most active rutile mining area in the country. Although mining companies left during the war, they returned when the war ended in 2002. Rutile is mined by creating large artificial lakes which are then dredged, leaving behind large water-filled pits up to 600 m long. In Sierra Leone, these activities have left vast areas of land deforested and degraded. It is estimated that between 80 000 and 120 000 hectares of land have been mined out in different parts of the country with minimal efforts at restoration. In the 1974 image, one small mining operation is visible (centre); however, much of the Moyamba District was still covered with relatively intact forests at that time. By 2003, mining activities had replaced large portions of forest with water-filled pits. These mining sites have extremely poor health and sanitary conditions; the pits teem with mosquitoes and bacteria that are linked to a high incidence of malaria, cholera, and diarrhoea. View detailed information

Freetown

2008-06-12T02:27:00.023-05:00

Sierra Leone


Freetown, Sierra Leone's capital city, shares a peninsula with the Western Area Forest Reserve'a small remnant of the Guinean Forests that historically stretched from Guinea to Cameroon. The century-old reserve covers a chain of forested hills that are home to approximately 300 species of birds and a small population of chimpanzees. Intense population growth began in Freetown in the 1970s. However, a buffer of forested land remained between the Reserve and the edge of the city. By the mid-1980s, however, the growing city had expanded into the buffer zone and much closer to Reserve borders (1986 image). Between 1991 and 2002, as many as one million people fled to Freetown as a result of war in Sierra Leone. Many of these refugees moved into the hills of the Reserve, where they relied on its resources to survive. Deforestation and land degradation of these valuable protected lands was the result. By 2003, the border of the Reserve had been breached in many places (2003 image), with urban populations encroaching from several directions. The Reserve is now recognized as vital, not only to the biodiversity and natural systems it supports, but to the people of Freetown as well. The forest is crucial for recharging Freetown's reservoirs, which are already struggling to meet the city's water needs. View detail information

Mahe Island

2008-06-12T02:27:00.021-05:00

Seychelles


The east coast of Seychelles’ Mahe Island has undergone major environmental change during the last 30 years, primarily due to land reclamation projects. In 1973, land was reclaimed to create a site for the Seychelles International Airport, and in 1986, for a new port facility. Two further phases of reclamation were completed in the early 2000s, parts of which can be seen in the 2007 image above (yellow arrows). These reclamation projects have impacted both marine and coastal environments. Several new wetland areas have been created, some of them colonized by mangroves, which provide valuable bird habitat and nursery areas for marine species. However, sedimentation from reclamation projects has killed some of the coral along Mahe's eastern coast as well. View detailed information

Leboudou Doue

2008-06-12T02:27:00.019-05:00

Senegal


In the black and white image, the darker areas of the land enclosed by this great loop on the Senegal River show the extent of the riverine forest in 1966. The 2006 image shows that very little of that forest remains. Similar deforestation has occurred in the fertile floodplains along hundreds of kilometres of the Senegal River. Only a small fraction of these riverine woodlands remain (see photo panel below). Much of the forest was cleared by local people to make way for subsistence agriculture. The most common riverine tree species, Acacia nilotica, is also the preferred source of wood for fuel and construction, and for charcoal production. Production of charcoal for sale as far away as Dakar and Saint Louis has further increased the pressure on what remains of these woodlands. Acacia nilotica woodlands that covered 39 000 hectares along the Senegal River in 1966 had been reduced to 9 000 hectares by 1992—a reduction of 77 per cent. These pressures were compounded by two developments in the late 1980s. In 1988, the Manantali Dam was built upstream in Mali. The dam controls roughly half of the Senegal River's discharge. While controlled releases of water from the dam can recreate natural flooding, below-normal flood levels may be contributing to loss of Acacia nilotica stands. The area's population has also grown dramatically over the past several decades, including the influx of some 120 000 Mauritanian refugees and Senegalese expatriates following an ethnic conflict in 1989. View detailed information

Dakar

2008-06-12T02:27:00.017-05:00

Senegal


Like many West African cities, Senegal's capital city of Dakar has grown dramatically over the past several decades. Growth is expected to continue. While birth rates have begun to decline, natural growth still accounts for much of Dakar's expansion. In addition, Dakar experienced a large rural-to-urban migration beginning in the 1960s, when Senegal suffered from declining precipitation and periods of extreme drought. By 2005, Senegal's urban population exceeded its rural population. By 2030, two-thirds of the country's population is expected to be urban. Roughly half of Senegal's urban population lives in the greater Dakar metropolitan area. Urban population growth has turned the Cap Vert Peninsula into a sprawling metropolis, where settlements reach ever-further inland and onto the prime farmland that has historically supported the city. Pikine, initially begun as a resettlement of urban slum dwellers 15 km east of Dakar, has grown to over one million people. Its location in the fertile Niayes region displaced large areas of urban and peri-urban agriculture that once provided livelihoods for a substantial portion of the population. In the aerial photo mosaic from 1942, Dakar is concentrated at the southern tip of the peninsula, with only the airport and a few scattered roads and settlements to the north. The 2006/2007 image shows only a portion of the greater Dakar area, which currently stretches another 14 km to the city of Rufisque (not shown). View detailed information

Tahoua Province

2008-06-12T02:27:00.015-05:00

Niger


A band across the southern third of Niger receives enough rain (250-750 mm) to sustain most of the country's rain-fed agriculture and pastoralism. This stretch of semi-arid Sahel is also where most of Niger's rapidly growing population lives. However, the Sahelian climate is quite variable and in this ecologically frail region this poses serious problems for traditional livelihoods. In recent decades, Niger's climate and its demographic problems have negatively impacted its agricultural land by forcing agriculture onto land that had been historically used for livestock— land receiving less than 350 mm of rain per year. This intense pressure on fragile lands led to acute environmental degradation (1975 image). More recently, a combination of various projects and farmer initiatives has led to significant revitalization of the land in large part by the planting and protection of trees. Farmers no longer clear tree saplings from their fields before planting crops. Instead they protect and nurture the trees, carefully plowing around them when sowing millet, sorghum, peanuts, and beans. A recent study revealed 10 to 20 times the number of trees across three of Niger's southern provinces than there were in the 1970s (2005 image). This transformation of the land has reduced drought vulnerability and will help people diversify their livelihoods so as not to rely solely on rain-fed crops. View detailed information

Baban Rafi Forest

2008-06-12T02:27:00.013-05:00

Niger


Along the southern border of Niger in the Department of Maradi, population has increased by roughly 400 per cent over the past 40 years. The area under agriculture in the department as a whole grew by 26 per cent between 1975 and 1996. In the south of the district, this expansion of population and agriculture has meant the loss of a large portion of the Baban Rafi Forest to agriculture. The remaining woodlands are being degraded by overexploitation for fuelwood and non-wood forest products. Baban Rafi Forest is the most significant area of woodland in the Maradi Department. Located at the southern extreme of the Sahel, it has areas of both savannah and Sahelian vegetation. In the savannah areas, the balance of trees, grasses, and shrubs varies. The wooded areas are dominated by just four species of trees—Guiera senegalensis, Combretum micranthum, Combretum nigricans, and Acacia macrostachya—likely as a result of selective exploitation and some combination of drought and disease. These satellite images show the loss of a significant fraction of the natural landscape (darker green areas) of Baban Rafi Forest to agriculture between 1976 and 2007. The intensity of demand for agricultural land has also led to near continuous use of farmland in the area, with shortened or no fallow period for it to recover fertility. The high resolution image below shows in more detail the area within the yellow box of the 2007 image. The lighter areas are where the woodland savannah vegetation has been cleared for farming. Continuing population growth will put further demands on this already dramatically changed landscape. View detailed information

Kavango Region

2008-06-12T02:27:00.011-05:00

Namibia, Angola


The Kavango Region, located in Namibia's relatively wet northeastern corner, is part of the eight per cent of the country that receives about 500 mm of rain per year—the minimum considered necessary for non-irrigated agriculture. However, because this rainfall is irregular and evaporation rates are high, it is often inadequate for successful farming. Many of the soils in this area, with low nutrients or high salinity, are also marginal for farming. Nevertheless, roughly 55 per cent of the region is used for subsistence agriculture with pearl millet being the predominant crop. Savannah woodlands are the natural vegetation in the sandy soils surrounding Rundu, near the Okavango River. Many of the woodlands along the river were cleared for agriculture long ago. More recently, government-dug wells have enabled settlement and farming further from the river, leading to further deforestation, particularly in the dry river beds (omurambas), where the soils are better for farming. The Namibian government considers this area an important focus of economic activity and supports many water and agricultural projects. Along with rapid development, the population of Rundu is growing at a staggering pace—911 per cent between 1981 and 1991. These images, from 1973 and 2007, show the dramatic increase in the land area cleared for agriculture (light yellow patches) around Rundu and elsewhere along the river. View detailed information

Diawling National Park

2008-06-12T02:27:00.007-05:00

Senegal, Mauritania


Prior to construction of Diama Dam across the Senegal River, land surrounding the Senegal Estuary was flooded with fresh water from late July to late September each year. During the dry season, these delta wetlands would become saltier than the ocean, as their waters were reduced by evaporation. This yearly cycle was disrupted by the construction of the Diama Dam in 1986 (yellow arrow). Both the Diama Dam, and the Manantali Dam constructed upstream in Mali, were intended to regulate the flow of the Senegal River, generate hydroelectric power, and facilitate development of irrigated agriculture. However, irrigation in the delta has been less successful and less productive than planned; lacking proper drainage systems, the land is becoming waterlogged and saline after just a few years under irrigation. Drought had already begun to impact the wetlands before construction of the dams in the 1980s (1979 image). Following their construction in the 1980s, fish stocks decreased and wetland vegetation was decimated. In the early 1990s, a restoration project began using controlled flooding of the delta by managed water releases. It has revived the wetlands and restored much of the lost flora and fauna to the area. The 2006 image shows the restored wetlands in and around Diawling National Park. View detailed information

Morondava

2008-06-12T02:27:00.005-05:00

Madagascar


The large circular fields of irrigated sugarcane near Morondava in western Madagascar are an anomalous sight in this area more known for its baobab trees. While the average temperature in the area is ideal for sugarcane cultivation, a long dry season (April to November) makes irrigation necessary. These three images show the region before irrigation (1973), after irrigation was introduced (2000), and after further expanded irrigation (2006). Managed by a foreign company, most sugar cane grown in the area is exported. Ironically, sugar must be imported for the local market. Roughly 22 000 metric tonnes of sugar were produced here in 2006. Baobabs, (see photo panel below) sometimes called "upside down trees" can live for up to 5 000 years. While there is only one baobab species on the African continent, Madagascar is home to seven different species. The volume of water needed for irrigating sugar cane fields may threaten the survival of these ancient trees if sugar cane farming extends into baobab areas—particularly the "allée des Baobabs" (Baobabs Boulevard, yellow arrows). Baobabs are also under threat by local community rice farming. Since August 2007 the "allée des Baobabs" has been temporarily classified as a protected area, the result of consultation between local communities, local authorities, and government authorities. View detailed information

Mikea Forest

2008-06-12T02:27:00.003-05:00

Madagascar


On an island known for endemic species, the South Malagasy spiny forests in the southwestern corner of Madagascar are one of the islands most distinct ecosystems. Within Mikea Forest, the unusual Didierea madagascariensis (see photo) and Euphorbia stenoclada as well as the more common Adansonia fony are among the most widespread tree species. Mikea Forest is also home to many endemic reptile and bird species. Two bird species unique to the Mikea Forest, the sub-desert mesite (Monias benschi) and the long-tailed ground-roller (Uratelornis chimaera), are classified as vulnerable. The area of Mikea Forest shown in these images has lost approximately 28 per cent of its primary forest cover in the last three decades and the rate of loss appears to be accelerating. The white dashed line shows loss between 1962 and 1999. The 2002/2003 image shows deforestation advancing still further to the west. A large portion of the forest has been lost to charcoal production, most of it for commercial sale in Toliara. This is especially true at the southern edge of the forest where road accessibility is greatest. Further north, slash-and-burn maize cultivation is practiced by the Mikea people native to the area. Most of this maize is for local consumption. This appears to be the driving force of forest loss along the eastern edge of the forest, which has moved almost 10 km to the west since 1973. View detailed information

Sapo National Park

2008-06-12T02:27:00.001-05:00

Liberia


Liberia's Sapo National Park is a largely undisturbed area (161 400 hectares) of lowland rain forest in the Upper Guinean Forest ecosystem. This ecosystem, which stretches from Cameroon to Guinea, has been decimated by logging, mining, and agriculture, leaving just three intact blocks, two of them in Liberia. Created in 1983, Sapo National Park was expanded by over 50 per cent in 2003. It is habitat for vulnerable and endangered species including the western chimpanzee, pigmy hippo, and forest elephant. The park's relatively pristine condition makes it an invaluable resource to Liberia and the world. In the 25 years prior to Liberia's current government, the area of logging concessions granted totaled approximately 2.5 times the entire forested area of the country, with multiple concessions often overlapping one another. Concessions surrounded the area of Sapo National Park. Following a review of legality and status, all of the existing forest concessions were cancelled in February 2006. A year earlier, squatters who were illegally mining and poaching within Sapo were evicted. The 1974 image shows the intact forest of the Sapo area prior to the park's creation. While roads and villages appear to have increased in the area surrounding the park, the 2001/2003 image shows that within the park itself, the forest remains in good condition. View detailed information

Arly National Park

2008-06-12T02:20:00.048-05:00

Burkina Faso


Arly National Park and the surrounding protected areas in southeastern Burkina Faso form part of the W-Arly-Pendjari Complex, a trans-boundary network of protected areas, which, taken together, are the largest and most important continuum of ecosystems in the West African savannah. The complex’s varied habitat is home to approximately 544 different plant species, 360 bird species and more than 50 species of mammals including elephants and hippopotamuses. Partial eradication of the black and tsetse flies (carriers of sleeping sickness and river blindness), an influx of transhumant pastoralists due to Sahelian droughts, and government promotion of cotton growing, led to a regional population explosion in the late 1970s. Nevertheless, human population in and around the Park remains relatively low, which, along with its protected status, has kept it the most pristine of Burkina Faso’s protected areas. In the early 1970s image the boundary of the Park and surrounding protected areas is indistinguishable from adjacent land uses. By 2005 the contrasting land uses are easily visible as is the Kompienga Dam. Built in 1989, the dam is a source of water for irrigated agriculture as well as a fishery. Also visible in the 2005 image are scattered burn scars (dark reddish purple patches) as the dry season begins. Burning across most of the area is an annual occurrence. View detailed information

Sangaredi Bauxite Mine

2008-06-12T02:20:00.047-05:00

Guinea


The Sangaredi Mine in the Upper Guinea Forest falls within one of the world's most biologically rich, yet seriously threatened, ecosystems. Recent biological assessment of the area surrounding the bauxite mine and proposed alumina processing facility identified five reptile species, 17 amphibian species, 140 species of birds, 16 species of mammals, and eight primate species, including the endangered West African chimpanzee and western red colobus. The Sangaredi Mine is Guinea's largest and most profitable. A proposed alumina refinery, sited approximately 25 km to the west of the mine, is expected to bring a US$3 000 million capital investment, thousands of jobs, and infrastructure development. The consortium which is building the refinery is working with Conservation International to incorporate ecological considerations into the plans. A biological assessment of the area was conducted as a part of that process. Bauxite mines and alumina refineries typically create serious ecological problems. Bauxite ore is mined in open pits, requiring the removal of vegetation and topsoil. In the 2007 image, the Sangaredi Mine is visible as a vast open pit approximately 20 km from one end to the other. Alumina refining produces highly caustic 'red mud' that negatively affects surface and groundwater quality. In addition to direct environmental impacts, the increased population and infrastructure development associated with the mine will likely put immense pressure on this environmental “hotspot.” View detailed information

Ouemé Flood Plain

2008-06-12T02:20:00.046-05:00

Benin


Benin's capital city, Porto Novo, and its largest city, Cotonou, lie within the floodplain and watershed of the Ouemé River. They share this important water system with Lake Nokoué and Porto Novo lagoon. The Ouemé River is home to over 120 species of fish; the greatest concentration of the occurring in the lower reaches of the river basin. Almost all of them are used for human consumption. The wetlands in the system serve as important nursery and feeding grounds for many of these species. They are also important habitat for many of the 233 bird species found in Benin. In addition to its biodiversity, the coastal zone plays a key role in the economy of Benin. Fishing, agriculture, and other economic activities within the coastal zone provide 70 per cent of the country's total GDP and livelihoods for much of Benin's population. Population pressure and the drive to boost the gross production from the coastal zone without proper environmental management threaten the integrity of the productive resource base and biodiversity resources. Illegal logging is a serious problem throughout the whole catchment. Between 1986 and 2000, dense forest in this area was reduced by more that 40 per cent. The 1986 image shows forested areas at the north-western edge of Lake Nokoué and north- eastern sections of the wetland system of Porto Novo lagoon. By 2000, some of the northern reserves had been decimated (yellow arrow). View detailed information

Ouagadougou

2008-06-12T02:20:00.045-05:00

Burkina Faso


Urban population in Burkina Faso grew 200 per cent between 1975 and 2000 and is projected to continue expanding at a similar pace over the next quarter century. The capital, Ouagadougou, is home to approximately 40 per cent of Burkina Faso's rapidly growing urban population, with 1.2 million residents in 2003. In the 1980s, much of Ouagadougou's growth was the result of rural to urban migration of young people; however, by the mid-1990s natural growth had become the main factor. In spite of government attempts to manage it, much of the residential growth in Ouagadougou has occurred in unplanned settlements at the periphery of the city. Because of the sprawling nature of these settlements, the city occupied 14 times more area in 1993 than it had only 33 years earlier. By the early 1980s, 60 per cent of the urban area was occupied by unplanned settlement. Much of this growth was concentrated in the south to southwest perimeter, a trend already apparent in the 1986 image (yellow arrows). The 2004 image shows more recent growth has been concentrated in the south and east (yellow arrows). Unplanned settlements limit future possibilities for planned development and further complicate delivery of basic services. The problem of an insufficient water supply is already being heavily felt. In addition, space used for these settlements is lost to other uses, including agriculture and wildlife habitat. View detailed information

Beki Forest Reserve

2008-06-12T02:20:00.044-05:00

Cote d'Ivoire


Located in southeastern Cote d'Ivoire, Beki Forest Reserve was one of 230 forest reserves established in the country in 1965. In 1971, Beki Forest Reserve covered 16 764 hectares. By 1986 its forested area had decreased by about one-fifth to 12 816 hectares. In 1995, less than one-third of the 1971 extent remained, representing an annual rate of loss around 4.5 per cent. Much of this deforestation began in the 1980s when the government resettled two villages away from the Comoé River and adjacent to the Beki Forest Reserve. The villages had been afflicted with an outbreak of onchocerciasis (river blindness) carried by blackflies that live near fast flowing water. To facilitate the village resettlements, authorities allowed the villagers to exploit land within the Reserve. Unfortunately, no limits were set on this authorized exploitation, and by the mid-1990s cultivation of cocoa and coffee covered much of the original forest area. In the images above, decimation of Beki Forest Reserve is apparent between 1986 and 2003, in contrast to the Bossematie Forest Reserve to the southeast. In Cote d'Ivoire, cocoa plantations currently cover two million hectares, and have caused the loss of a significant portion of the country's natural forests. Cote d'Ivoire produced 1.275 million metric tonnes of cocoa in 2004/2005. Coffee and cocoa generate 50 per cent of the country's total export revenues and one-third of the population depends on cocoa cultivation. View detailed information

Yala Swamp

2008-06-12T02:20:00.041-05:00

Kenya


Yala Swamp is located in western Kenya, on the northeastern shore of Lake Victoria. It is the third-largest wetland ecosystem in the country, after Lorian Swamp and the Tana River Delta. The swamp provides a habitat for many plants and animals, some of which are extinct in the larger lake ecosystem and others that are endemic to the swamp. Nutrient rich sediments deposited by the Yala River and the availability of water makes Yala Swamp particularly attractive for agriculture, including the intensive production of rice, cotton, and various other irrigated cash crops. The development of this area has pitted the Kenyan government and private investors against conservationists. While the government and the investors argue that a well-planned exploitation of part of this area can help alleviate hunger and poverty in the region, conservationists feel that the Yala Swamp is too important of an ecosystem to be disturbed for any economic gains. These two images show the area before and after development of the region began. The small farm parcels in the 2002 image have largely been replaced by larger parcels, as is evident in the 2007 image. A dam (yellow arrow) has also been erected on the river, to provide water for irrigation. View detailed information

Mt. Kenya

2008-06-12T02:20:00.039-05:00

Kenya


Mount Kenya has been described as one of the most impressive landscape features in East Africa. In addition to its beauty and value for timber, farmland, and tourism, it is a critical water catchment for Kenya and crucial to hydro-power generation on the Tana River. Depending on altitude and rainfall, there are a variety of different ecosystems on Mount Kenya, which are visible to some degree as various shades of green in the 2007 satellite image above. After independence in 1963, the Kenyan government encouraged settlement of the Mount Kenya region and over a period of roughly forty years population increased ten-fold. In the late 1990s it was recognized that this intense population growth, along with misuse of non-resident cultivation policies, (see photo below) illegal charcoal production, illegal forestry, and marijuana cultivation were threatening the future of Mount Kenya. New policies and improved enforcement have significantly reduced unsustainable exploitation of the mountain's forests. Continued monitoring and management of this majestic mountain is aimed at maintaining its immeasurable value for future generations. Sustainable uses such as eco-tourism help provide employment without undermining the essential ecosystem functions and invaluable biodiversity of this natural asset. View detailed information

Conakry

2008-06-12T02:20:00.035-05:00

Guinea


Natural resources in Guinea's coastal zone are crucial to local economies, which depend on their immediate environment for freshwater, fuelwood, fisheries, and agriculture. Guinea's coastal zone is also home to one-fourth of West Africa's mangroves, which are linked to the vitality of the terrestrial and marine ecosystems that they bridge. These resources are being exploited at an unsustainable pace due to rapid population growth which without changes in resource management practices will lead to irreversible environmental degradation. Population in Guinea's resource-rich coastal zone nearly tripled between 1963 and 1996. In the capital of Conakry, rural-to-urban migration, including refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone in the 1990s, dramatically increased the population. Estimated at approximately 39 000 in the 1960s, Conakry's population had increased to nearly two million by 2006. Conakry's growing population puts intense pressure on the surrounding woody savannahs and mangroves, which are being converted to agriculture and exploited for fuelwood. Conakry was founded on Tombo Island at the tip of Kaloum Peninsula. Its growth since then has followed the peninsula, hemmed in on either side by mangrove forests. In the 1975 image, dense settlement has reached the airport and beyond, but natural vegetation still covered much of the area. By 2007, however, nearly all of that vegetation has been overtaken by Conakry's rapid growth. View detail information

Wassa West District

2008-06-12T02:20:00.033-05:00

Ghana


With the encouragement and support of the World Bank, Ghana revised its mining laws in the 1980s, privatising the industry and liberalising regulation. This resulted in several hundreds of millions of dollars of foreign investments in Ghana's mining industry. While this brought gold production to new highs, replacing cocoa as Ghana's most valuable commodity, it also resulted in social and environmental impacts that are proving to be unpopular locally and internationally. Over 60 per cent of the Wassa West District in western Ghana is now under concession to large-scale gold mining companies, the greatest concentration of mining in a single district in Africa. The large footprints of these open-pit mines directly result in significant forest loss. In addition, related infrastructure and associated population growth indirectly drive even greater land cover conversion. Significant portions of Wasa West's tropical rainforest have been degraded by or lost to this gold mining boom since the 1980s. The mines in Wassa West have been kept out of the forest reserves, which can be seen as dark green areas with clear straight boundaries in both the 1986 and 2002 images. However, the 2002 image shows that the footprints of mining operations in the district have grown dramatically since 1986. View detailed information

Forest Resources

2008-06-12T02:20:00.031-05:00

Gabon


Various sources estimate Gabon's forest cover at between 17 and 20 million hectares, comprising the majority of the Guineo-Congolese forest. Guineo-Congolese forest is a tropical rain forest ecosystem known for its high species richness and endemism. This forest is an invaluable resource to Gabon locally and is also important globally as a source of biodiversity and a carbon sink, which influences the global climate. Over the past 40 years, the area of forest allocated to logging concessions has grown from less than 10 per cent to over 50 per cent with most of this increase occurring in the last decade. Okoume, a valuable African hardwood, accounts for over 70 per cent of Gabon's timber harvest. It is selectively harvested by clear-cutting patches of Okoume, leaving a few trees to encourage regrowth. During the first six months of 2005, production of logs of all species in Gabon rose 4.7 per cent over the previous year. The 2000 image shows a clear cut patch in the centre of the image at a regrowth stage. This is in contrast to the 1988 image, in which only slight disturbance of the forest cover is visible (yellow arrow). The least densely populated country in Central Africa, Gabon has less pressure than many of its neighbours to convert forests to agricultural land. With good forest management practices, the immense value of Gabon's Guineo-Congolese forest can be sustainably utilized for many generations. View detailed information

Lake Alemaya

2008-06-12T02:20:00.029-05:00

Ethiopia


Lake Alemaya in the Ethiopian Highlands has historically provided the surrounding area with water for domestic use, irrigation, and livestock and has served as a local fishery. As recently as the mid-1980s its maximum depth was around eight metres and it covered 4.72 km2. Since then Alemaya's water level and surface area have declined considerably, as is evident in these images. In recent years, low water levels have interrupted the water supply in Harar, a nearby town of over 100 000. Increasing irrigation and domestic water use change in the local climate, and changes in the surrounding land cover are believed to be the causes of Alemaya's demise. Agriculture expanded dramatically starting in the mid-1970s due to improved infrastructure, increased population, and changes in government policies toward production and marketing. Among the crops grown is khat, a psychoactive leaf consumed heavily in northeastern Africa. Khat has become an exported cash crop in recent decades and irrigation has increased as a result. In addition, siltation caused by the deforestation of the Alemaya watershed has reduced the capacity of the shallow lake. A trend of warmer temperatures since the mid-1980s may also have increased the rate of evaporation from the lake. View detailed information

Manzanar Mangrove Project

2008-06-12T02:20:00.027-05:00

Eritrea


Along 15 per cent of Eritrea's coast there are stretches of green that contrast with the arid environment surrounding them. They are mangroves'stands of salt tolerant trees and plants that can get their water from the sea. Dr. Gordon Sato, a retired molecular biologist, wondered why they occur only intermittently rather than along the entire coast. He discovered that streams flowing into the Red Sea during seasonal rains provide nutrients that the mangroves need to grow. He devised a simple means of delivering these missing nutrients, allowing mangroves to be grown on otherwise barren shoreline. These mangroves flourish with low cost applications of fertilizer. The 2001 and 2007 images (above) of the coast near Hagigo, Eritrea, show how quickly the seedlings are growing into stands of mangrove trees (yellow arrows). The mangrove's leaves provide fodder for sheep, which in turn are a source of food for the Eritrean population. The so-called Manzanar Project aims to develop self-sufficiency in Eritrea, village by village. Coupled with aquaculture, the mangroves provide both a land- and sea- based economy that might eventually be developed for the specialty seafood export market. View detailed information

Punta Europa Oil Facility

2008-06-12T02:20:00.025-05:00

Equatorial Guinea


Petroleum and natural gas are key to Equatorial Guinea's rapid development and growing GDP. The Alba gas field located 19 km north of Bioko Island is the country's largest natural gas field, with 37 000 million m3 of proven reserves. The above images show massive infrastructural development of the gas and the hydrocarbon facility at Punta Europa on Bioko, between 2000 and 2007. The Punta Europa plant flares natural gas and associated byproducts—initially at a rate of approximately 2.5 million m3 per day to the current volume of about 3.5 million m3. To reduce the economic and environmental damage associated with this flaring, the Atlantic Methanol Production Company completed construction of a methanol plant at Punta Europa in May 2001. The plant consumes around 3.5 million m3 per day of quality gas to produce 19 000 barrels per day of methanol used in a variety of industries. Similarly, Marathon Oil and its partners are nearing completion of a liquefied natural gas plant at Punta Europa. These two facilities will eliminate the need to flare gas at Punta Europa. The projected greenhouse gas reduction from the methanol plant alone is 2.85 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per year for each year of the project. View detailed information

Damietta Promontory

2008-06-12T02:20:00.023-05:00

Egypt


The Nile Delta is built of sands carried to Egypt's Mediterranean coast by the Nile River, primarily since the end of the last ice age. Dams along the river and entrapment of sediment in a vast network of irrigation canals have led to a dramatic decrease in the flow of water and sediment to the delta's edge. Closing of the Aswan High Dam in 1964 shifted the balance between sedimentation and erosion in favour of erosion. At several points along the coast, the delta is now receding. Damietta Promontory has eroded dramatically as waves and currents have stripped its sands faster than the river can replenish them (yellow arrow). While there are local areas of accretion such as the Damietta Spit (red arrow), on balance the delta is shrinking. Prior to the construction of the Aswan High Dam, fresh water from annual floods influenced salinity and circulation patterns up to 80 km offshore from the delta. In contrast, current discharge patterns allow salt water from the Mediterranean to reach dams up to 26 km inland. Diminished freshwater and sediment delivery to the delta also affects the ecology of coastal lagoons, soil fertility, and salinisation of irrigated land. Coastal protection structures, regulation of irrigation, and increased groundwater exploitation may mitigate the delta's decline, but the current rate of population growth threatens to outstrip these measures. View detailed information

Djibouti City

2008-06-12T02:20:00.021-05:00

Djibouti


Nearly 85 per cent of Djibouti's population is urban, with the vast majority of urban dwellers living in the capital city, Djibouti. The city's population grew 10-fold between 1950 and 2002 and is projected to grow another 25 per cent, to 800 000 people by 2025. The city is poor by international standards, but its relative prosperity for the area has attracted migrants from rural Djibouti and surrounding countries. The country of Djibouti has little arable land, little rainfall, and limited possibilities for irrigation. Because of this it imports 80 per cent of its food, mostly through the port of the capital city. Droughts during recent decades and desertification exacerbated by overgrazing have reduced the viability of pastoral life. This, along with high rural water insecurity, has helped to drive many rural residents to villages and cities—many of them settling in the capital. Water availability in the capital is better than in rural areas, but limited supply and inadequate sanitation are problems there as well; the rapidly growing population will make the supply issue worse. Improving access to water in the rural areas is a way to address poverty and health issues in the countryside and at the same time reduce the rural-to-urban migration that is straining the capital city's infrastructure. A recent partnership between the European Union, UNICEF, and Djibouti's Ministry of Agriculture should bring clean, safe water to 25 000 of Djibouti's poorest rural residents. View detailed information

Bumba

2008-06-12T02:20:00.017-05:00

Democratic Republic of the Congo


A pattern of deforestation concentrated along the local roads in the Nord-Ubangi and Mongala provinces of the DRC can be seen clearly in the 1975 image as loops of light green through the otherwise dense rain forest. In the 2003 image, these deforested corridors have widened, almost to the point of joining. Most of this deforestation is the result of agricultural conversion, fuelwood collection, settlement, and artisanal logging. Networks of logging roads can also be seen within two of the patches of largely intact forest in the lower right corner of the 2003 image. While industrial logging has had a relatively small impact in the DRC in the past, it has recently become the most extensive form of land use in Central Africa. More than half of the area visible in these images is under logging concession. The selective logging practised by commercial logging companies has been shown to have long-lasting impacts on forest composition. Logging roads have been shown to significantly increase bushmeat hunting. In addition to local and logging roads, a recent study for the World Bank suggests the road from Bangui, CAR, to Kisangani, DRC, be improved as part of a continental road network. The study shows that the network would increase trade on this route enormously. It also acknowledges concern that parts of the road network that would experience the greatest increase in trade correspond to areas with the highest biodiversity. View detailed information

Ouesso

2008-06-12T02:20:00.015-05:00

Congo


Ouesso, the largest town in northern Republic of the Congo with roughly 25 000 people, is surrounded by relatively intact tropical rain forests with a range of fauna including elephants, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bongos. Bushmeat accounts for the vast majority of protein in the diet of local people. Hunters largely ignore laws governing the taking of wild game; the harvest is only limited by accessibility and technology. Inaccessibility of the area around Ouesso has also limited timber exploitation. Of seven companies logging in the area in the 1990s, four went bankrupt under the burden of high transportation costs. However, the area's inaccessibility appears to be changing. In the 1976 image few roads are visible and towns in the area are quite small, with little visibly disturbed forest surrounding them. By 2003, roads have penetrated throughout the area, towns have grown significantly, and, particularly near Pokola, the area of disturbed forest has grown (yellow arrows). Logging roads, vehicles, and increased job opportunities have been shown to dramatically increase the range in which bushmeat hunting takes place. It also changes hunting from a subsistence activity to a commercial activity with meat being transported as far away as Brazzaville. There is a proposal to build an Ouesso-Brazzaville rail line. Improved transportation at lower cost would likely bring more roads, increased logging, and further increase in the bushmeat trade. View detailed information

Yamba Berté Forest Reserve

2008-06-12T02:20:00.013-05:00

Chad


The Yamba Berté Forest Reserve in southwestern Chad is made up of critical gallery forests, pristine woodlands, and a network of small lakes and swamps. The dense forest includes trees that can grow as tall as 35 m. The reserve is important habitat for gazelles, monkeys, warthogs, giraffe, elephants, and the rare giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus). Yamba Berté is located in a zone of savannah woodland that stretches across southern Chad and also supports a dense human population and most of the country's agriculture. The introduction of cotton in the 1930s and draft animals in the 1950s supported a large increase in agriculture. During the drought years (1968, 1972-1973, 1983-1984) large numbers of people migrated to the area because of its higher rainfall and the economic opportunity of its larger cities. In addition to subsistence crops such as maize, millet, and sorghum, the area is ideal for growing cotton and groundnuts, which are the two primary cash crops. The 1986 image shows agriculture around Yamba Berté, including some encroachment on the reserve area. The second image, captured 15 years later, shows dramatically increased agriculture around the reserve and several areas where the reserve boundary has been breeched. The high-resolution image (image below) shows the detail in one area of encroachment. View detailed information

Doba Oil Fields

2008-06-12T02:20:00.011-05:00

Chad


The Chad Export Project brought an investment of approximately US$3 500 million to one of the poorest countries in the world. Among the stated goals was to "provide additional resources to alleviate poverty through social sector and infrastructure development." Concerns were voiced by non-governmental organizations at the outset; these concerns included displacement of people from traditional land and livelihoods, environmental degradation, opportunity for corruption, and inadequate capacity to enforce environmental regulations. The project included drilling 300 oil wells in farmland surrounding Doba and construction of a 1 050-km pipeline across Cameroon to Kribi on the Atlantic Coast (see map under photos panel). Small patches of light green in the 1976 satellite image show agriculture already present in the area. By 2007, the intensity of agriculture had increased greatly and three clusters of oil wells, concentrated over three oil fields, can be seen. The fields of well pads show as light coloured squares at the end of access roads (yellow arrows). While the project has brought an influx of revenue, it remains to be seen if this translates to a better life for the people living in the vicinity of the oil fields or in Chad as a whole. World Bank documents rate the project's performance in this regard as "moderately satisfactory." Other reports have taken a less favourable view. View detailed information

Bangassou Forest

2008-06-12T02:20:00.009-05:00

Central African Republic


The Bangassou Forest is a mosaic of lowland rain forest and secondary grasslands in southeastern Central African Republic covering an estimated 1.2 to 1.5 million hectares. This region is very isolated; little is known about its forests and there has been no commercial exploitation of the forest products in this area. While this is not a protected area, there has been oversight from the regional Office of Water and Forests and a community conservation project. The Bangassou Forest is an area with high biodiversity and a wide range of habitats. Only about 20 000 people live in the forest itself; however, the city of Bangassou has a population of over 24 000. The growth of Bangassou and the apparently increasing gaps in the forest canopy between 1975 and 2006 (light coloured areas, particularly between Zipo and Madamboya) suggest that pressure on the forest may be increasing. The Bangassou Forest is one of only two areas in Central African Republic where elephants still live. Estimates of the elephant population have declined from 2 640 in 1989 and 1 600 in 1995 to perhaps as few as 500 to 1 000 in 2004. This is widely believed to be the result of poaching which appears unlikely to decrease under current circumstances. View detailed information

Huambo Province

2008-06-11T00:29:00.017-05:00

Angola


While Huambo province has been referred to as the "breadbasket of Angola," its soils in reality are not ideal for agriculture. Many years of intensive cash crop agriculture on these marginal soils dating back to the 1920/1930s further diminished their agricultural capacity. During Angola's civil war (1976-2002) many people who could not leave the region moved to the safer zones along the Benguela Railways corridor between Huambo and Caála. In the 2006 image this human activity shows as the lighter colours and loss of green throughout the centre of the image, particularly surrounding the two cities and the rail line between them. This concentration of settlement and agriculture with minimal inputs further degraded soils in these areas. Deforestation has also been found to be an important cause of land degradation and relocation in Huambo province. The loss of several forested areas, including some forest plantations, can be seen between the 1973 and 2006 images, where patches of dense green have been replaced by more reflective farmland and dense settlement (yellow arrows). At the end of the war, many of those returning to Huambo province found their land would no longer support them and were again displaced. In addition, returning refugees found that destruction of infrastructure, limited availability of inputs, and limited seed stock further reduced their prospects. View detailed information

Catoca Diamond Mine

2008-06-11T00:29:00.015-05:00

Angola


The Catoca kimberlite pipe (diamond-rich geological formations) in the Lunda Sul province of Angola is the world's fourth largest in terms of surface area, with diamond reserves of at least 40 million carats. The Catoca Mine was constructed between 1994 and 1997. In 2003, the mine produced 2.5 million carats worth US$ 189 million. Mining, by its very nature, significantly alters the landscape. Satellite images from 1990 and 2006 show the extent of change at Catoca over that 16-year period. Diamond mining is a large-scale earth-moving operation—for each carat recovered, more than a tonne of material is moved. Diamond mining is also extremely water intensive, since water is used to wash the final gravels and separate the diamonds. The Catoca Mine was built to minimize its environmental footprint. Its current extraction methods produce little toxic waste. The next stage of the project, however, will use dense media separation (DMS) for diamond recovery, a chemical process that exerts a far greater environmental impact. View detailed information

Ouargla Oasis

2008-06-11T00:29:00.013-05:00

Algeria


Ouargla, located in the sands of the northern Sahara Desert, overlies the North-West Sahara Aquifer (NWSA) which extends underneath Algeria, Tunisia and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Use of the superficial water table of the NWSA extends back to ancient times. In the 19th century, bore holes were drilled to access deeper parts of the aquifer. By the1970s there were roughly 2 000 bore holes on the NWSA. These wells now provide water to irrigate approximately 500 000 date palms surrounding Ouargla. The region's traditional irrigation methods used sustainable amounts of water. Modern, more intensive irrigation methods can lead to degraded water quality, decreased water levels, and loss of artesian pressure, as well as salinization of the superficial water table and the soil. Natural drainage conditions and insufficient engineered drainage have already led to accumulation of water near the surface and a concentration of minerals. This salinized water at a depth of 0.5 to 1.5 m below the soil surface is detrimental to palm trees. The 1976 image shows date palms surrounding Ouargla and Chott Aïn El Beda, a saline depression that has collected irrigation runoff for generations. The 2006 image shows a proliferation of irrigated land, which, without proper management, will not be sustainable. View detailed information

Hassi R'Mel Oil Fields

2008-06-11T00:29:00.011-05:00

Algeria


In 2006, oil and natural gas exports made up 98 per cent of Algeria's total exports. A major portion of these fuels came from the Hassi R'Mel gas fields, located about 550 km south of Algiers. The fields were discovered in 1956; initial production started in 1961, and it has since become one of the world's largest gas fields. These two satellite images show the dramatic development of the area in the last three decades. In the 1972 image, changes to the landscape are minor compared to the 2000 image, which reveals vastly expanded infrastructure, mainly related to the gas fields. The high resolution image from 2005 shows more detail (see photo panel below). In addition to gas production, Algeria began building a hybrid gas and solar power generating facility at Hassi R'Mel in July 2007. It will produce 150 megawatts of electricity, with 25 megawatts coming from 180 000 m2 of parabolic reflectors. The first of its kind, this facility is expected to be operating by 2010. By 2020 Algeria hopes to be exporting 6 000 megawatts of power to Europe—roughly the equivalent of 10 per cent of Germany's current consumption. View detailed information

Harbel Rubber Plantation

2008-06-11T00:29:00.009-05:00

Liberia


Built in the 1920s and 1930s, the Harbel rubber plantation just north of Monrovia, Liberia, is the largest in the world. This large monoculture plantation has created a host of environmental problems, including loss of biodiversity and the release of chemical waste into surface waters. Plantation workers are also exposed to compounds and chemicals that are internationally recognized as toxic and environmentally damaging. These two images show that the extent of the Harbel rubber plantation has expanded slightly in 30 years (yellow arrow). The change in colour of most of the plantation's vegetation may be the result of seasonal variations—rubber trees drop their leaves at least once per year—or the age of the trees in the later image. Mature stands have more shadows and allow less of the leafy understory vegetation to show through than younger trees. Most of the trees on Liberia's rubber plantations are nearing the end of their productive lifespan. This has brought the country's rubber industry to the brink of collapse. A new extension to the lease arrangement between Harbel's owners and the Liberian government was signed in 2005 which, according to the company, will allow for replanting to begin. However, it will likely take many years for the older trees to be replaced. View detailed information

Congo Roads

2008-06-11T00:29:00.007-05:00

Congo


In the dense tropical rainforest of sparsely populated northeastern Republic of the Congo, large tracts of relatively intact forest support a high concentration of biodiversity—including several large mammal species, approximately 1 700 plant species, 428 bird species, and many fish species. These forests play an important role in regulating local rainfall and climate. Tropical rain forests also absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. The 1976 image shows a large intact tract of humid tropical forest. By contrast, the 2001 image shows an extensive network of logging roads. The associated felling and removal of logs are causing considerable damage to the forest. The roads also provide access for bushmeat hunters and farmers into previously remote, intact forest. This has led to extreme over-hunting of vulnerable species including western lowland gorillas, elephants, and leopards. Global demand for timber is expected to encourage substantial deforestation in the long term. If this deforestation triggers a landscape-scale transition from forest to woodland or savannah, the consequences for biodiversity and climate would be catastrophic. View detailed information

Ghana’s Tropical Forest Zone

2008-06-11T00:29:00.005-05:00

Ghana


The fragmented tropical forest of southwestern Ghana creates a fascinating pattern from space. The dark green patches seen above are reserves set aside early in the 20th century; they are the only significant blocks of forest remaining in the country. Recognizing this priceless ecological heritage, the Ghanaian government has developed policies for sustainable forest management. In spite of the enormous ecological benefits of the forest and the government's effort to sustainably manage the reserves, shifting cultivation, uncontrolled logging, surface mining, charcoal production, and increasing population place enormous pressure on these remnants of Ghana's tropical forests. In the 1973 image (top left) the vegetation inside and outside the protected areas appears green and robust. In the 2002/2003 (top right), dramatic change is apparent; some of the northern reserves have been decimated and the northern edge of the forest zone has moved south. Recently, mines have been permitted within some of Ghana's forest reserves. On the advice of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Ghana relaxed mining and logging regulations and nurtured investment by the mining and forestry industries through generous incentives during the 1980s and 1990s. Mines like the one within the Afao Hills Forest Reserve pose a serious threat to Ghana's remaining forests. View detailed information

Omo Delta Wetlands

2008-06-11T00:29:00.003-05:00

Kenya, Ethiopia


The Omo Delta is located at the north end of Lake Turkana, a large closed-basin lake located primarily in Kenya. The Omo River provides the majority of the lake's water. The 1973 image shows the delta entirely within the boundaries of Ethiopia. By the time the 2005 - 2006 image was acquired the southern most point of the delta was roughly 12 km to the south and had crossed the Ethiopia-Kenya border. While the relative contribution of several causes is uncertain, reduced lake levels are believed to be the primary cause with an increase in sediment inflow also contributing. Decreased rainfall, increased upstream diversion of water and increased evaporation due to higher temperatures all likely contribute to the lower lake levels. Soil disturbance for agriculture has increased erosion and increased the inflow of sediment to the lake. The fact that the delta now falls in two countries has complicated its management. The increasing area of the delta has provided new land for the 20 000 Dassanech people - traditional inhabitants of the delta. Primarily pastoralists the Dassanech also grow millet, maize and beans on the delta. In the fall of 2006 severe flooding killed around 100 Dassanech and destroyed houses, crops and infrastructure. View detailed information

Rosso-Nouakchott Highway

2008-06-11T00:29:00.001-05:00

Mauritania


North of the border between Mauritania and Senegal, National Highway 2 connects Mauritania's coastal capital Nouakchott with the regional capital of Rosso. The highway has brought increased settlement to this arid area, leading to the loss of natural vegetation for building, grazing, and fuel, and beginning the process of desertification. Without vegetation to retain water and decrease wind erosion, the fertility and productivity of the soil declines, dry sandy soil begins to drift, and vegetation is less able to re-establish itself. The signs of progressive degradation of the land along the Nouakchott–Rosso Highway can be seen in these images. In the 1972 image, bright reflection from the sandy soils surrounding the highway is mixed with some vegetation (shades of green). In the 1990 image, the path of the highway shows as a bright yellow corridor from northwest to southeast through El Haedi. The 2006 image shows the same pattern of vegetation loss along the highway. The 2005 high-resolution image below is an enlarged view of the outlined area (red box) on the 2006 image. Red arrows on the 2005 image indicate areas of almost total vegetation loss. Continued population growth is increasing the demands made on this arid landscape. View detailed information

Sudd Swamp

2008-06-10T23:43:00.063-05:00

Sudan


The Sudd is a vast wetland ecosystem in southern Sudan where the Nile River meanders for nearly 645 km through the landscape. During the dry season (February 2005 image), the wetlands contract to approximately 8 300 km2 of permanent swamp. During the wet season (July/August 2005 image), the Sudd floods, expanding to cover 80 000 km2. This annual pattern of water rising and receding shapes the entire ecosystem and is crucial to the survival of the wetlands’ plants and animals and to the nomadic lifestyle of the Nuer, Dinka, and Shilluk people who live in the region. The Jonglei Canal project (yellow arrow), begun in 1978, was designed to speed the movement of Nile water around the Sudd wetlands, reducing evaporation and making more water available downstream. Despite the possible downstream benefits, the proposed 360-km canal could have a devastating effect on the wetlands of the Sudd. Recent studies also show that the project could impact the regions's climate, groundwater recharging, and water quality as well. Construction of the canal stopped in 1983 because of armed conflicts in the area during the second Sudanese civil war. This conflict has now ended and plans to resume the canal's construction are being evaluated. Efforts to preserve the wetlands received a major boost in 2006 when the Sudd was added to the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. View detailed information

Copperbelt

2008-06-10T23:43:00.062-05:00

Zambia, Democratic Republic of the Congo


Large-scale copper mining began in north-central Zambia's Copperbelt Province during the 1930s, attracting workers and turning this biologically rich savannah woodland into a heavily populated area with several large cities. Until the 1960s, the mining industry used wood from surrounding lands to generate power for the copper mines; this resulted in the clear-cutting of approximately 127 000 hectares between 1947 and 1956 and selective harvesting of trees in an area of similar size. The mining industry converted to hydroelectric power in the early 1960s, but the growing population continued to rely on wood for fuel. Copper mining began to decline in the 1970s when oil prices rose and copper prices dropped. By the 1990s, the industry had collapsed, leaving large numbers of workers unemployed. Many of these unemployed miners turned to small-scale agriculture and charcoal production to make a living, putting additional pressure on the surrounding woodlands. Large urban centres, open-pit mines, and areas of deforestation are already apparent in the 1972 image. These urban areas continued their rapid growth, resulting in the much larger areas of degraded and deforested woodlands visible in the 2006 image. Record copper prices in recent years have revived the area's copper industry. Copper accounted for an average of 67 per cent of Zambia's annual total export receipts between 2002 and 2005. View detailed information

Beira Fire Scars

2008-06-10T23:43:00.061-05:00

Mozambique


During Mozambique’s dry season—May to October—fires leave burn scars on the landscape. Over a third of the country is affected by fire each year. NASA's Earth Observatory recorded an especially large number of fires in August 2006. The widespread nature of the fires suggests that they may have been intentionally set. Population growth in Mozambique has drastically intensified the need for agricultural land as well as for forestry and wildlife products, thus putting increased pressure on limited resources. Fires have become a primary means of clearing land for cultivation. The 21 May 2006 satellite image was acquired at the beginning of the 2006 dry season, before many fires had left their mark. The 9 August 2006 image shows the same area roughly 2.5 months later. Pink, dark red, and black fire scars cover much of the landscape. Many plants in Mozambique are adapted to periodic fire. However, the increasing frequency of fires affects the natural regeneration of vegetation and is believed to be reducing species diversity in Mozambique’s forests. Frequent fires can also increase soil erosion and negatively impact hydrology. View detailed information

Akagera National Park

2008-06-10T23:43:00.060-05:00

United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda


Akagera National Park in northeastern Rwanda is considered to be among the most complex savannah ecosystems in eastern Africa. Across its landscape are areas of tangled acacia trees interspersed with patches of open grassland, patches of gallery forest in the north, and wetlands and lakes along the course of the Akagera River. Fire is common in the savannah portions of the park. Fire tends to maintain the savannah's vegetation structure, composition, nutrient cycling, and distribution. Satellite images from July 1980, June 1984, and July 2004 show the area surrounding Akagera National Park with large fire scars (dark purple patches). In 1980, fires left a scar 35 km wide and well over 100 km long. In 2004, fires burned nearly one-third of the park; they are believed to have been set by poachers. In contrast to these dry season images, the December 1999 image shows the region during the rainy season, when fires occur infrequently. The size of Akagera National Park was reduced by approximately two-thirds in 1997 to allow for the resettlement of large numbers of refugees. Heavy grazing pressure, agricultural encroachment, charcoal production, the felling of trees for fuelwood and construction, and deliberately set fires have seriously fragmented the ecosystem. Wildlife populations are now concentrated in scattered enclaves. View detailed information

Addis Ababa

2008-06-10T23:43:00.059-05:00

Ethiopia


Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, was established in 1889. Major urban migration into the city began in the mid-1970s, driven mainly by unemployment, poverty, and declining agricultural productivity in rural areas. The population of Addis Ababa is currently 2.9 million, and is projected to grow to 5.1 million by 2015. Ethiopia as a whole has an annual population growth of 2.8 per cent. Twenty-seven per cent of Ethiopia's urban population lives in Addis Ababa and this has created substantial pressure on the city's infrastructure, housing, and urban services. These satellite images taken in 1973 and 2005 show the development of Addis Ababa's massive urban sprawl. In 1996, the city had only 238 000 residential housing units. That same year, the total number of households was estimated to be 460 000, leaving 220 000 households or nearly 1 000 000 residents without suitable housing. This situation led to illegal housing construction and uncontrolled settlements, some of which are encroaching on protected forest and reserve lands at the edges of the city. View detailed information

Saloum River Estuary

2008-06-10T23:43:00.057-05:00

Senegal


The coastal wetlands of Senegal are centered on the Saloum River and a myriad of estuaries and tidal flats that make up this complex ecosystem. The estuaries are generally bordered by dense, vigorous stands of mangroves. A major portion of this ecosystem enjoys full protection as the Saloum Islands National Park. The wetlands are critical habitats for wintering Palearctic birds, as well as many species of fish and mollusks. The mangrove vegetation is made up of several species, some of which form low canopies and others of the Rhizophora genus are among the tallest in the world, attaining heights of up to 40 meters. They grow in habitats that are periodically flooded by sea water (tidal influence) and river water. They are halophytes, plants which grow in salty environments. Since the late 1960s, it has become apparent that many of the Saloum River mangrove forests are dying. One theory is that there is a serious mangrove disease which is systematically wiping them out. However, most evidence indicates that the mangrove die-off is related to the widespread Sahelian drought, which has plagued the region since 1968. The lack of rainfall has led to an accumulation of salts, exceeding the tolerance levels of the mangroves. The die-off is particularly acute in the northern half of the Saloum River wetland complex. The dark green tones on the satellite imagery indicate mangrove forests in both the ‘before’ and ‘after’ images of the wetland complex around the Saloum River in Senegal. In the 5th November 1972 image the dark green coloration is more homogeneous in the area around the river delta and to the north of the river bank. In contrast, there is a patchy pattern of dark green in the same area within the river delta. And further more, there is an absence of the green coloration to the north of the river bank, the dark green being replaced by dark gray patches. This signifies a loss of the mangrove forest vegetation around the Saloum River. Today, there are vast areas of standing dead mangrove carcasses; many of these areas have been reduced to barren mud flats. Only in the southern reaches of the wetland complex does one still see healthy stands of mangrove forests. Conservation efforts are under way through organizations such as the West African Association for Marine Environment (WAAME) which performs integrated and community-based management activities in the mangrove ecosystems in the Saloum Delta Biosphere Reserve, funded by the European Commission. View detail ed information

Niger Delta Oil

2008-06-10T23:43:00.055-05:00

Nigeria


The Niger River Delta spans the coast of Nigeria from the Benin River in the west to the Imo over 150 species of fish, West African manatees, hippopotamuses, spot-necked swamp otters, and rare pygmy hippos. Since the discovery of oil in the delta in the 1950s, the promise of improved lives through a share of the oil wealth has eluded area residents. Instead, they have found their traditional livelihoods increasingly undermined by environmental degradation. The 1984 image shows the delta 20 years after oil operations began in the early 1960s. The 2003 image shows concentrations of oil wells (small yellow arrows) as well as pipelines connecting them. Also visible are a large storage facility, liquefied natural gas plant and terminal station on Bonny Island in the lower right corner of the image (large yellow arrow). Currently, about 66 gas fields and over 500 oil wells are located in the delta area. Between 1976 and 1996 there were more than 4 640 oil spills totaling three million barrels of oil. In addition, between 70 and 90 per cent of the natural gas from these oil fields is flared (burned as waste), releasing massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, causing local air pollution and acid rain, and wasting roughly US$300 million per day worth of energy. View detailed information

Mutarara-Sena Conflict Agriculture

2008-06-10T23:43:00.051-05:00

Mozambique


Cropland Use Intensity (CUI) in Mozambique was negatively affected by the post-independence war in that country after 1975. Mozambique was a colony of Portugal until 1975, when an 11-year war of independence ended with the establishment of an independent government. But a 17-year civil war started soon after independence. The civil war affected Mozambicans severely, especially in rural areas. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed. Over a million people fled the country, especially to Malawi, and more than a million others were displaced within Mozambique. Many rural people migrated to the cities, especially along the coast where the government maintained control. The country went into severe economic depression. Agriculture was disrupted, so the country could not feed itself. By the late 1980s Mozambique had one of the lowest per-capita caloric intakes in the world. Landsat satellite imagery of 15th August 1973 around the town of Mutarara, just before Mozambique got independence, shows high agricultural activity to the top center of the image, indicated by the bright green rectangular patterns north of the small town of Tembe-Tembe. This equates to high cropland use intensity before the war started in 1975. A look at the 24th February 1992 satellite image shows a drastic decrease in agricultural activity, and hence cropland use intensity, in the same area after the war. The prevalence of a brown color in the better part of the image is an indication of the lack of vegetation; arguably due to a lack of agricultural activity. Three years later as can be seen in the 20th April 1995 Landsat image, there is an increase in the green vegetation and the acreage of agricultural fields north of the same study area north of Tembe-Tembe. The final Aster satellite image of the study area shows the largest coverage of healthy green vegetation and agricultural fields, several years after the end of the civil war in Mozambique. This study carried out by Crawford, et al. (1996) is an indication that cropland use intensity decreases due to the effects of war, and increases when political stability and peace prevail in a state. The US Agency for International Development (USAID) runs the Famine Early Warning System (FEWS), which monitors drought-prone countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, to quickly detect droughts and crop failures which could lead to mass hunger and starvation. The US Geological Survey EROS Data Center (EDC) carried out the CUI study presented herein in support of FEWS’ efforts (Crawford et al., 1996). View detailed information

Lake Malawi

2008-06-10T23:43:00.049-05:00

Malawi


Lake Malawi (Nyasa), the third-largest lake in Africa, is an essential water resource for Malawi, Mozambique, and United Republic of Tanzania. A 2003 study indicated that sediments and nutrients from densely settled areas surrounding Lake Malawi (Nyasa) are entering lake waters, increasing nutrient loading by as much as 50 per cent. In these images, the bluish green swirls in the lake are algae blooms caused by these excess nutrients. Among other things, the algae reduce dissolved oxygen levels in the water. This poses a threat to the lake's fish species. The algae blooms appear worse in 2006 (note their concentration along the lake's western shore, yellow arrow), suggesting that water quality may be continuing to decline. View detailed information

Mulanje Massif

2008-06-10T23:43:00.047-05:00

Malawi


Rising to 3 000 metres, Mount Mulanje is the tallest peak in south-central Africa. It is an important source of water for almost every river that runs through southern Malawi. Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve was created in 1927, primarily to safeguard the water catchments and to control the extraction of the endemic Mulanje cedar—Malawi's national tree. Forest cover in and around the park is threatened by agricultural conversion, wildfires, fuelwood collection, and invasive species. Between 1973 and 2006, the top of the mountain underwent notable deforestation (yellow arrow). View detailed information

Kibira Forest

2008-06-10T23:43:00.045-05:00

Burundi


Uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuelwood coupled with land clearing for agriculture and grazing in Burundi has resulted in profound deforestation—as much as 47 per cent of the country's forest cover has disappeared since 1990. Along the mountains dividing the Congo and Nile River Basins is Kibira Forest, Burundi's only montane rain forest. This 40 000-hectare forest and national park is home to 644 plant species including the threatened African mahogany species, Entandrophragma excelsum, as well as 98 mammal and roughly 200 bird species. Kibira is also the source for 75 per cent of the water driving the country's largest hydroelectric dam. The 2004/2006 image (top) shows Kibira Forest as an island of green in a largely deforested landscape. The high-resolution images (see photos panel below) show how agriculture—large and small—is closing in on the forest boundaries. While the forest is a national park, it faces continued pressure from legal and illegal cutting of trees, cutting of bamboo, fire, poaching, grazing, and agriculture. Light green patches in the enlarged 2006 image (imediately above, yellow arrows) show evidence of disturbance where the mature forest has most likely been lost to fire or tree-cutting. Limited legal forestry is allowed in the park; however inadequate capacity to enforce policy has led to considerable illegal logging and clearing for farms. View detailed information

Bujumbura

2008-06-10T23:43:00.043-05:00

Burundi


With 91 per cent of its people living in rural areas, Burundi is one of the most rural nations in Africa. It is also the second most densely populated. Approximately 90 per cent of the work force relies on agriculture, the vast majority being subsistence farmers. Some of the most intense agriculture in Burundi surrounds the growing capital of Bujumbura. A comparison of 1979 and 2000 satellite images shows the expansion of agriculture around the capital. The high-resolution satellite image (below) shows the interface between the southeast edge of the city and surrounding farms. Adequate rainfall and good soils have historically made Burundi self-sufficient in food production. However, many areas in Burundi are considered unfit for cultivation. Scarcity of land will continue to put pressure on farmers to cultivate unsuitable lands. Burundi's domesticated land use has been measured at 86 per cent; a country is generally considered to be "land scarce" when 70 per cent or more of its land is used. Better agricultural practices could improve productivity and might relieve some of the pressure to convert additional unsuitable land to agriculture. View detailed information

Campo-Ma’an Forest

2008-06-10T23:43:00.041-05:00

Cameroon


The Campo-Ma'an rain forest in southern Cameroon covers approximately 770 000 ha of an area known as the Guineo Congolian Regional Centre of Endemism, a species rich area of rain forest with many species found no where else in the world. While the population density is quite low the area supports a host of economic activities, many of which threaten the area's ecosystems including logging, shifting agriculture and commercial agroforestry. These forces contribute to southern Cameroon's high rate of deforestation which is among the highest in central Africa. It is the agro forestry area dominated by rubber and palm plantations that can be seen clearly in the center of the 2001 remote sensing image. In 1973, the forest appears as largely intact (Landsat 01 February 1973). By 2001 (Landsat 21 April 2001) the two plantations, roads and forested areas dominate the landscape. Logging is permitted with concessions which span 30 management plans. Four zones or Forest Management Units (FMU) are located partially or wholly within the larger Campo-Ma'an area. In addition, the local agricultural practice is slash and burn or shifting agriculture which is a major cause of deforestation and forest degradation surrounding settlements and will increase in severity as population grows. In the center of the forest is the 61 333 ha. agroforestry zone. Approximately two thirds of this area is covered by the HEVECAM rubber plantation. The remainder of the zone is the SOCAPALM palm plantation whose production facility produces roughly 26 000 tonnes of palm oil each year. These large scale agroindustrial operations have destroyed approximately 7.5 per cent of the areas forest cover. Campo-Ma'an is an important focus of conservation efforts in Cameroon and in 2000 the Campo-Ma'an National Park was created to protect its diverse flora and fauna. The park covers 26 400 ha of diverse forests spanning from the Atlantic coast to roughly 100 km inland and was created in part as "compensation for environmental damage resulting from Exxon-Mobil's 1000 km Chad to Cameroon pipeline." View detailed information

Mt. Cameroon

2008-06-10T23:43:00.039-05:00

Cameroon


Mount Cameroon, in the country's southwest corner, is among the most active volcanoes in Africa. Rising 4 095 metres above the nearby Atlantic coast, it has erupted seven times in the last century, most recently in 1999 and 2000. The mountain is home to many rare birds and plants. In addition, there are several small communities near the volcano that are at risk from direct and indirect impact of volcanic activity. In the 1986 image, a lava flow is visible on the southwest flank of the mountain (yellow arrow), the result of a 1982 eruption. The image from 2000 shows large lava flows left by the 1999 and 2000 eruptions (yellow arrows). Older lava tracks from eruptions prior to 23 January 1959 can also be seen in both images. The principal vent of the 1999 eruption was at about 1 400 m elevation. It sent a voluminous lava flow estimated at about two kilometres wide and 30 m thick in a south-southwest direction. The flow eventually extended roughly seven kilometres, burning through dense rain forest, industrial palm plantations, and small subsistence farms, and flowing across the important Limbe-Idenau road. The village of Bakingili was evacuated over concerns that the hot lava entering the sea might pose a health threat. In 2000, Mount Cameroon erupted again, with two main lava flows moving down the volcano's southern flank. View detailed information

Jwaneng

2008-06-10T23:43:00.037-05:00

Botswana


Botswana is the world's leading producer of gem quality diamonds. The diamond industry accounted for 83 per cent of export earnings within the country. Diamond production in Botswana is dominated by Debswana − the world's leading producer of gem diamonds − a joint venture company owned by De Beers Investments (50 per cent) and the Government of Botswana (50 per cent). The Jwaneng diamond mine is located in south-central Botswana about 170 km (110 miles) west of the city of Gaborone, in the Naledi River Valley of the Kalahari. Jwaneng is an open pit mine, dug over three kimberlite pipes that converge near the surface covering 520 000 square metres at ground level. The mine operates medium- to very large-scale seven−day week operations and boosts a very high extraction rate, producing 9.3 million tons of kimberlite ore per year at a ratio of 1.25 carats of diamond per ton. The mine produces 9.3 million tons per year of ore and an additional 37 million tons per year of waste rock. The high rate of diamond extraction, combined with high quality diamonds fetching excellent per weight prices, make the Jwaneng diamond mine the richest diamond mine in the world by value of recovered diamonds. The image of 1973 shows no signs of mining activity. The 2006 image shows the large footprint the Jwaneng has made on the landscape since then - roughly 8 kilometers from end to end. Apart from being the richest diamond mine, the Jwaneng mine owns and operates a local hospital and airport and has maintained a 5 star NOSA safety rating since 1986. With over 2100 employees, the Jwaneng mine is also the first Botswana company to receive ISO 14001 certification in 2000, for environmental compliance. The mine has won multiple national and international safety awards since its inception. View detailed information

Mashonaland Central Province

2008-06-10T23:43:00.035-05:00

Zimbabwe


In the 1980s and 1990s Zimbabwe was known as the breadbasket of southern Africa. It was self-sufficient in maize production and had large commercial farms which brought foreign currency into the country through the sale of tobacco and other export crops. Since 2000 the country has seen a dramatic decline in agricultural production and has needed to import maize to address food shortages. For the 2006/2007 marketing season the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) predicted a cereal grains shortfall in Zimbabwe of approximately 22 per cent. While there have been some periods of drought during this time, the deficits in agricultural production exceed the levels that would be caused by drought alone (Smith et al., 2006). Western governments claim that the food shortage is the result of government policies in Zimbabwe, particularly a land reform policy that has taken many large farms out of the hands of experienced farmers. While the causes have been contested by the government, there is no denying that there have been food deficits in Zimbabwe over the last 5 years. In addition remote sensing imagery provides evidence that the large productive commercial farms have been broken into smaller farms. In the August 2001 ASTER image many large farm fields can be seen in bright green. By the time of the August of 2005 ASTER image many of these same farms have been broken into smaller fields. View detailed information

Lake Jipe

2008-06-10T23:43:00.031-05:00

United Republic of Tanzania, Kenya


Lake Jipe, along United Republic of Tanzania's border with Kenya, is an important source of the Pangani River. As much of 75 per cent of the lake is infested by invasive aquatic plants, particularly cattails (Typha domingensis) and papyrus, or bulrush (Cyperus papyrus). The bright green areas at the waters edge in the 1975 and 2005 images show these invasive plants covering parts of Lake Jipe. Coverage in 2005 is notably more extensive, especially at the northern end of the lake. The greyish patch there is evidence that the lake is actually drying up. Research indicates that if current conditions continue, the lake may dry up completely within the next ten years. The situation in Lake Jipe is the result of a vicious cycle. Drought reduces water levels in the lake, creating conditions in which the invasive plants flourish. The plants, in turn, encourage siltation and help draw down water levels even further. The Pangani River Basin provides water for hydroelectric power plants at Nyumba ya Mungu and Pangani Falls, which provide at least 20 per cent of United Republic of Tanzania's electricity. Increasingly low water levels in Lake Jipe and elsewhere have the potential to reduce power production. Low water levels have already affected the local fishing industry, forcing fishermen to move south to the Nyumba ya Mungu Dam. Projected water scarcity may also impact wildlife in Kenya's Tsavo National Park. View detailed information

Shume Magamba

2008-06-10T23:43:00.029-05:00

United Republic of Tanzania


Shume Magamba forest reserve is located in the West Usambara Mountains. It is one of the thirteen blocks forming the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania and Kenya, along the Albertine Rift. It is comprised of 12 000 ha of moist montane forest, which is a gazetted forest reserve, with 2 500 ha under exotic plantation. The Eastern Arc is one of the most biologically rich regions in the world, with a large number of endemic animal and plant species. It is regarded as one of the world's top 25 global biodiversity hotspots and is increasingly being managed for biodiversity conservation. The forest is threatened by timber harvesting (pit sawing) and agricultural encroachment. Part of the Shume-Magamba Forest on the West Usambara Mountains was degazetted from a Forest Reserve soon after independence in 1961 and was then converted to agriculture by land-hungry residents. Other major threats to the forests in the West Usambaras include fire spreading from surrounding farmlands and gold mining. In the former case, the enhanced burning regime is believed to have been the main cause of the replacement of Afromontane forests with grassland and scrub-grassland across large areas. The sharp boundaries at the edges of the forest indicate areas where forest has been converted to farmland. The 2005 image shows these boundaries pushing further into the forest in several places. The high resolution image (see photos panel below) shows detail of the area highlighted by the yellow box in the above images. In addition to crops, areas of forest plantation are displacing natural forest. Areas of trees with parallel lines cut through them are generally tree farms. Tanzania had the sixth largest annual net loss in forest area between 2000 and 2005 in the world of about 412 000 ha/yr; second largest in Africa after Zambia. In total, between 1990 and 2005, United Republic of Tanzania lost 14.9 per cent of its forest cover. Currently, 39.9 per cent of the country is forested. Apparently, a number of mountains have lost at least 80 per cent of their original forest cover, including Taita, Ukaguru, Mahenge, and West Usambara. The energy economy in Tanzania is largely focused on collecting, distributing, and consuming wood fuels (wood and charcoal) to satisfy household demands for cooking. As much as 90 per cent of all primary energy consumed in Tanzania is biomass based. View detailed information

Walvis Bay

2008-06-10T23:43:00.025-05:00

Namibia


Walvis Bay is an economic and environmental hotspot in Namibia. It has been designated as a free-trade area and placed on the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. The Walvis Bay lagoon, the largest area of shallow, sheltered water on the Namibian coast, supports a wide range of birdlife. Walvis Bay's tidal channels, mudflats, and sandbanks support roughly 150 000 birds, including the African black oystercatcher, lesser and greater flamingo, chestnut banded plover, and black-necked grebe. Walvis Bay's solar evaporation facilities process 24 million metric tonnes of seawater each year, producing more than 400 000 metric tonnes of high-quality salt. The solar evaporation process occurs in a series of connected ponds through which seawater flows, evaporates, and deposits salt in crystallizing ponds. In 1973, the salt evaporation ponds were still relatively small (red and blue rectangles in the centre of the image). By 2005, however, they had grown to cover 3 500 hectares in the lagoon. Most of the energy required to extract salt from seawater comes simply from sunlight and salt produced by this method is 99.7 per cent pure. About one-third of worldwide salt production uses this method, which, when properly managed, is very environmentally friendly. View detailed information

Lake Faguibine

2008-06-10T23:43:00.023-05:00

Mali


Lake Faguibine is located in the Sahelian−sub desert zone to the west of Timbuktu in northern Mali. Annual precipitation in the Faguibine area is in the range of 250 mm/yr, with the rainy season beginning in mid-June and lasting 3 to 4 months. When full, the lake is among the largest in West Africa − an estimated 590 square kilometers in 1974 − and is an important source of water for the surrounding area (top left image). In the late 1980s Lake Faguibine essentially dried up, making the traditional economic practices of fishing, agriculture and pastoralism difficult or impossible. It remains nearly dry in spite of normal rainfall in several of recent years (bottom right image). Lake Faguibine is at the end of a series of basins that receive water from the Niger River when it floods. This creates a close relationship between the mean flow of the Niger River and water levels in Lake Fagubine. Because of this a lack of rainfall in either the Lake Fagubine catchment or the Niger River catchment upstream of the Niger Inland Delta can affect the water levels in the lake. West Africa has a history of rainfall fluctuations of varying lengths and intensities. Sub−Saharan West Africa has experienced severe droughts in 1972, 1984 and 1992 and experienced a general trend of reduced rainfall from the early 1970s until the mid 1990s. The Lake Fagubine area in particular has seen a trend of decreasing rainfall since at least the 1920s (see figure 1 under photos). While water levels have also fluctuated widely in Lake Fagubine since the beginning of the 20th century, the period between the late 1980s and 2000 saw an extended period of low water with a complete drying up of the Lake in the 1990s. A 2003 Columbia University study links changes in Ocean temperature to drought in the Sahel in the 1970s and 1980s. There is speculation that global warming may be responsible for the recent increase in precipitation − since 2000 − and may continue to increase precipitation. In any case these findings "add another dimension to the variability of the global climate" and to the lives of peoples who rely on natural systems for their livelihood. View detailed information

Virunga National Park

2008-06-10T23:43:00.021-05:00

Uganda, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo


The Virunga Park area is home to over half of the world's 700 surviving mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). In an area approximately 40 km by 12 km with an elevation ranging from 2 300 to 4 507 metres there are a variety of ideal gorilla habitats including bamboo and montane forests. The area includes Mgahinga National Park in Uganda, Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda and the Mikeno (Gorilla) sector of Virunga National Park in DRC. Surrounding these protected areas, however, are some of the densest human populations in Africa. In addition to population pressure, armed conflict in the region has made habitat and species protection very difficult. In the 1978 image, a line between the protected areas and the populated agricultural areas surrounding the parks is already apparent. While the boundary of the parks has remained largely intact since the mid-1970s, during the 1990s and early 2000s, large numbers of people moved into the area surrounding the parks, many of them refugees from armed conflict. A report by the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature documented a large coordinated influx of people from outside the area in May and June of 2004. The report estimated that 15 km2 of land at the west edge of the Park (yellow arrow) were deforested during this time. The decline in areas of green outside the protected areas suggests that few fallow fields and little natural vegetation remain—a sign of the agricultural intensity in this area. View detailed information

Rwenzori Glaciers

2008-06-10T23:43:00.019-05:00

Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo


A comparison of satellite images from 1987 and 2005 shows a decrease in the extent of glaciers on Speke, Stanley, and Baker peaks in the Rwenzori Mountains, which lie on the equator between Uganda and Democratic Republic of the Congo, and are a major source of water for the lower plains like Kasese. Seasonal changes in snow and ice cover prevent simple visual analysis from conclusively measuring the decline of these glaciers. However, scientific findings from studies in 2003 and 2006 show that the glaciers at the tops of the Rwenzori Mountains are rapidly receding. The glaciers declined by 50 per cent between 1987 and 2003. This glacial recession is generally attributed to increased air temperature and decreased snow accumulation during the 20th century. It has recently been suggested that decreasing cloud cover during that same time period has contributed to a higher rate of sublimation (vaporisation of ice without melting) of these glaciers as well. A century ago the glaciers of the Rwenzori Mountains covered nearly 6.5 km2. If the glaciers continue to recede, as they have since 1906, researchers estimate they will be gone in the next 20 years. View detailed information

Mabira Forest Reserve

2008-06-10T23:43:00.017-05:00

Uganda


Mabira Forest, located in one of the Uganda's most densely populated districts, is the country's only protected area of medium-altitude, moist, semi deciduous forest. The forest contains a wealth of biodiversity, provides a variety of services to local inhabitants, and is important to the area's hydrology. The forest is under intense pressure from timber harvesting, charcoal production, fuelwood collection, and agricultural encroachment. A 1989 study estimated that 29 per cent of Mabira Forest was lost between 1973 and 1988. The report also noted a significant increase in ecological disturbance in the areas of forest that remained. In the 2001 image, (above left) a large portion of harvested forest still shows the light green colours of young secondary growth (yellow arrows). The 2006 image shows that this secondary forest still remains largely intact and is maturing. The Ugandan government plans to give much of this portion of Mabira Forest to the Sugar Corporation of Uganda (SCOUL) to expand its sugar plantations. This prospect sparked opposition protests in Kampala, 50 km to the southwest. While the government argues that the need for economic development justifies the loss of the forest, many environmental groups have opposed the move, citing the value lost in biodiversity, ecosystem services, timber production, eco-tourism, and carbon sequestration credits, which can be traded on the world market. View detailed information

Gishwati Forest

2008-06-10T23:43:00.013-05:00

Rwanda


Gishwati Forest Reserve in northwestern Rwanda is one of the most severely deforested areas in the country. Exploitation of the forests for commercial products such as charcoal, timber, medicine, and food has been the main driver of this deforestation. The 1978 satellite image shows the Gishwati Forest Reserve as a dark-green carpet of dense forest nearly covering the entire protected area. The 2006 image shows that most of the forest has been cleared; the dark-green areas have been replaced by patches of pink and light green where the vegetation has been largely removed. Only a fraction of the forest that was intact in 1978 remains; what is left is in degraded condition. On a positive note, reforestation efforts in parts of the region, using agroforestry techniques such as radical terracing, progressive terracing, and live mulches, are currently being researched and implemented. Seedlings of species such as Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena diversifolia are being planted in several provinces of the country with collaboration from stakeholders and the local community. If such efforts continue and are successful, the Gishwati Forest Reserve may experience considerable regeneration within the next five to ten years. View detailed information

Helheim Glacier

2008-06-10T23:43:00.009-05:00

Greenland


After years of moving at a relatively stable speed, Helheim Glacier in southern Greenland has dramatically accelerated. According to a University of California-Santa Cruz study, the glacier's peak rate of flow has increased from 8 km per year in 2000 to 11 km per year in 2005. In addition to flowing more rapidly the glacier thinned by 40 meters between 2001 and 2003. The calving front of the glacier − the area where the ice breaks away and falls into the ocean − has retreated by approximately 5 km. These images show the retreat of Helheim Glacier's calving front between September of 1986 (Landsat) and July of 2006 (ASTER). According to one of the authors of the study, the likely underlying cause of these changes is higher air and water temperatures in the area of Southern Greenland. However, the study also identifies a relationship between the retreating front of outlet glaciers such as Helheim and an increase in the rate of flow (as the front of the glacier retreats it offers less resistance to the glacier's movement). The dynamic interactions of temperature, glacier flow rates, and ice thickness complicate the modeling of future changes in the Greenland ice sheet. These processes are likely to continue to accelerate under prevailing climate change scenarios. The overall Greenland ice sheet contains approximately 10 percent of the world's freshwater and is up to two miles thick. If the entire Greenland ice sheet were to melt it would raise sea level by 20 feet. Howat believes that if the processes which are accelerating the thinning and retreat of Helheim Glacier are occurring at other glaciers throughout Greenland, the time it will take for the Greenland ice sheet to disappear could be cut in half. View detailed information

Larsen Ice Shelf

2008-06-10T23:43:00.007-05:00

Antarctica


The ice along the Antarctic Peninsula has been observed to be disappearing in a series of retreats over the past 30 years. Climate in this area is warming at approximately 0.5 degrees Celsius per year following a trend that is believed to have been occurring for at least the past 50 years Generally this retreat has occurred as icebergs break away from the oceanward edge of the ice. More recently a new pattern has been observed. Scientists have been closely monitoring the Larsen Ice Shelf since 1995 when a large portion of it (Larsen A) dramatically disintegrated. In 2002 another similar event occurred at Larsen B (see image series below). In contrast to the slower pattern of calving - where pieces of ice break away at the edge of the shelf – these two events occurred over a large area and in a relatively short period of time. In the case of Larsen B 3,250 square kilometers of the ice shelf shattered into a plume of 1000s of icebergs in a little over a month. Over the last 5 years approximately 40 per cent of Larsen B has disintegrated--5,700 square kilometers. Larsen A is believed to have been in place for over 2000 years at the time of its collapse and Larsen B is thought to have been still older. Scientists have developed a theory to explain this new phenomenon of catastrophic collapse which links it to summertime warming and the pooling of melted water on the surface of the ice shelf. The pooling water is believed to accelerate the expansion of crevasses and lead to the breakdown of the ice shelves. In the case of Larsen B, ponds of melt water can be seen in the remote sensing images taken shortly before the collapse occurs, lending credence to this theory. Melt-water ponds can now be seen forming on Larsen C in more recent images suggesting the potential for a similar collapse there in the future. View detailed information

Myebon

2008-06-10T23:43:00.005-05:00

Myanmar


Myebon, Myanmar is in the coastal state of Arakan where many of Myanmar's mangrove forests are located. Several large areas of mangrove were cleared for agriculture and other uses (e.g. paddy fields and salt pans) between 1979 and 2000. The large areas of gray and tan that appear in the previously deep green areas show where the mangroves have been cleared. Mangrove ecosystems occur at the transition between the marine and terrestrial ecosystems and provide important services to both. They are nursery areas for the breeding of many marine species and essential for maintaining healthy fisheries. They are also prime habitat for migratory birds, amphibians and many terrestrial species. Mangroves are under pressure throughout much of coastal South Asia where they are being cleared for agriculture, aquaculture and urbanization. Protection of mangrove areas such as these will become increasingly important to preserving the dwindling areas of viable mangrove forest throughout the tropics. View detailed information

Kuala Lumpur

2008-06-10T23:43:00.003-05:00

Malaysia


With a population over 1.4 million (and approximately twice that number in the greater metropolitan area), Kuala Lumpur is the largest city in Malaysia and is growing rapidly. Its sprawl is now encroaching on the mangrove forests at the coastline (approximately 35 kilometers to the west of the city centre). These Landsat satellite images from 1974 through 2005 show the gradual spread of development and the loss of mangrove forest that has resulted. By 1975, many areas of mangrove had already been converted to agriculture. As thirty years pass, the agricultural areas expanded and more mangroves were converted to farms. At the same time, these images show the agricultural areas being converted to industrial and urban land use. Elsewhere along the Malaysian coastline, mangroves are rapidly being converted to commercial shrimp farms. Forestry Department statistics show that peninsular Malaysia had 85,800 hectares (214,500 acres) of mangrove swamp forests in 2003, down from 86,497 hectares just one year earlier. Mangroves are biologically diverse and highly productive ecosystems that offer valuable habitats to a wide variety of both marine and terrestrial species. They are being lost at an alarming rate throughout the tropics. Protection of these areas may be needed to ensure the survival of this valuable natural resource. Nevertheless, many countries, including Malaysia are converting large areas of mangrove forest for agriculture and aquaculture. Governments will face intense economic pressure to continue converting mangroves to land use which can provide short term economic gains. Sustainable development will require tradeoffs between this short term gain and long term viability of the environment. View detailed information

Kantang

2008-06-10T23:43:00.001-05:00

Thailand


These mangroves, in the Trang River Estuary in Thailand, are under threat from upstream discharge of wastewater, industrial facilities and unsustainable aqua culture practices - particularly commercial shrimp farming. From 1975 to 1993, it is estimated that about half of Thailand's mangroves along its 2,560 kilometer coastline have been lost. The larger area of the Had Chao Mai Marine National Park, the Ta Libong Island Non-Hunting Area and the Trang River Estuaries has been designated a Ramsar Wetland Site and supports over 200 bird species including many "critically endangered" , "endangered", "vulnerable" and "threatened" species. In these two Landsat images shrimp farms appear as bluish purple squares located near the streams. Between the earlier image acquired in January, 1990 and the later image acquired approximately 11 years later there is an explosion in shrimp farming throughout the estuary. Mangrove ecosystems are the interface between the marine and terrestrial ecosystems and provide important services to both. The fallen leaves and branches contribute important nutrients, making healthy nursery areas for the breeding of many marine species and in turn creating healthy fisheries. They are also prime habitat for migratory birds, amphibians and terrestrial species. The international market for shrimp will likely continue to drive the development of commercial shrimp farming. Protection of areas such as Kantang will become increasingly important to preserving the dwindling areas of viable mangrove forest throughout the tropics. View detailed information

Lake Al Wahda

2008-06-10T23:38:00.025-05:00

Morocco


The second-largest dam in Africa and the largest in Morocco, Al Wahda Dam has a capacity of 9 714 million m³. Located in the Gharb Plain, the dam was built in 1996 to reduce devastating flooding along the Ouergha River, provide water for irrigation, and generate hydroelectricity. Since completion of the dam, flooding has decreased by 90 per cent, potential irrigation has increased by about 110 000 ha, and hydroelectricity production has reached approximately 400 Gwh per year. The electricity produced by the dam allows the Moroccan government to avoid burning 140 000 metric tonnes of fossil fuels per year, thereby reducing greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere. However, natural and human-caused erosion is filling the dam with silt and threatens its long term sustainability. It is estimated that the reservoir loses 60 million m³ of capacity each year to siltation. In addition, these sediments trapped in the reservoir do not reach the coastal estuary, which has altered the balance of siltation and erosion along the coast in favour of erosion. Another potential threat to the dam's future viability is suggested by climate and hydrological modeling, which predicts that a 1° Celsius increase in average air temperature between 2000 and 2020 might reduce runoff to the Al Wahda Dam by 10 per cent. View detailed information